White Bread
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health bread, 179–81
heirloom starters, 193
Hershey, Lewis B., 110
Hess, John, 181
“hippie” counterculture, 168
hipster white trash chic, 164
history of bread: dreams of good bread, 13–15; industrial bread, 14, 23–25; social status and, 7; world, 3–6
Holsum bread advertisement, 17, 40
home economics/economists: euthenics movement, 36; scientific household management and, 32–33; siding with industrial vs. homemade bread, 62, 63
Home Health Radio (Clark), 73
homemade bread, 1–2; counterculture of 1960s and 1970s and, 174; food purity and, 61–63; as inferior to industrial bread, 44–45; in late nineteenth century, 23; as the most hygienic, 37–38; in the 1970s, 181–82; shift to industrial bread from, 23–25; shift to store-bought bread from, 29–30
household cleanliness, 33–34
housewives: criticism of home bread making and, 61–63; enriched bread and, 117; factors involved in bread choices by, 225n59; in Rockford study on bread preferences/consumption, 122; sanitary procedures and, 45
housework, professionalization of, 33
How the Other Half Lives (Riis), 35
humane-sustainable cattle, 10–11 Hunter, Beatrice Trum, 168
Hutchinson, Woods, 65, 95–96, 97
hygiene, 194; early twentieth-century social anxiety over, 33–34; in homemade vs. bakery bread, 37–38; professionalization of domestic, 32–33; Progressive Era reform and, 22; social reform on, 33–34, 36–37; of workers in bakeries, 39. See also sanitation
immigrant bakeries, 25
immigrants: bakery hygiene and, 39–40; blame for social change on, 21; food-borne illnesses associated with, 35; food safety concerns and, 47, 49; as meatpackers, 18; as unfit to serve in the military, 110; and white bread as “Americanizing,” 7
India, 158; Punjab region, 158
industrial bakers. See baking industry
industrial bread, xi; artisan bread and, 54–55; beginning of, 24; Bimbo Bakery (Mexico), 133–34, 153–55, 160–61; complaints about, by 1950s housewives, 122; concern for food purity and, 19; consumption of, in 1940s and 1950s, 122–23; European bread vs., 143–44; health bread, 179–81; history of, 14, 23–25; homemade bread as inferior to, 44–45; 1950s-era concerns about, 167–68; pure food and, 19, 20; relationship to industrial food, 8–9; thiamin deficiency and, 112; triumph of, 45–47; Ward Bakery, 20, 24–29; white trash and, 164–65, 187–88; whole wheat, 98–99. See also enriched bread; store-bought bread; white bread
industrial food and food production, 8–9; abundance and efficiency with, 59–60; American dream of, 161; American superiority in, during Cold War, 141; food access and, 159; in Japan, 144–48; Mexican Agricultural Program, 152–53; Mexican Green Revolution model for, 155–57; in Mexico, 134; negative impact of Green Revolution technology, 157–59; problems associated with, 71–72
inequalities: Green Revolution wheat production reinforcing rural, 157–58; Grupo Bimbo and, 160; spread of disease and, 82. See also class; social status
inspections, bakery, 37–39, 40
International Multifoods, 174
Interstate Bakeries Corporation, 28
Interstate Baking, 161
Iran, 139, 144
Iraq, 3
Israel, 3
Italy, 3
ITT Continental, 180–81
Japan, x, 136, 144–48
Jeffries, B. G., 94
Jewish bread riots, 36
Jewish rye bread, 96, 219n53 Jordan, 3
Journal of Home Economics, 113, 121
Journal of the American Medical Association, 43, 112
The Jungle (Sinclair), 18, 38
Juska, Arunas, 49
Just Food (McWilliams), 71
Kamp, David, 12
Katz, Sandor, 189
Katzen, Molly, 177
Kellogg, John Harvey, 86
Kennan, George, 127
King, Martin Luther, Jr., 168
“kitchen revolt,” 181–82
Kleen-Maid Bread, 55
Korea, 136
Kronprinz Wilhelm (battleship), 89; “the Kronprinz Wilhelm incident,” 89, 90
labor organizations, 38
La Brea Bakery, 52–55, 70–71, 184, 185
Lactobacillus sanfrancisco, 184
Ladies Home Journal, 60
La Follette, Robert M., 27
LaLanne, Jack, 91
Lamarckian evolution, 94
la PanaderÍa Ideal, 150
Lappe, Frances Moore, 179
Latson, W. R. C., 34
Laurel’s Kitchen (Robertson/Flinders), 175, 176, 181
La Vie de France, 183
Leader, Dan, 52
Lebanon, 3
Lecture to Young Men on Chastity (Graham), 81
Lederle, Ernst, 39
legislation: mandating enriched bread, 117; Pure Food and Drug Act (1906), 19, 67
Levant, 3
Levenstein, Harvey, 34
Lewis, Oscar, 155
Lexington Mill & Elevator, 66–67
liberals, in alternative food movement, 105–7
Lima, Ohio, 142
Listen America (radio program), 119
literature, utopian, 59 “Little Miss Sunbeam,” 126
The Living Bread (Merton), 168
local food, 48–49
local wheat, 83, 87
Locke, J. L., 146–47
Loewy, Raymond, 166
Long Telegram (1964) (Kennan), 127
Looking Backward (Bellamy), 59
“lord,” origins of title, 5
Los Angeles Times, 138, 141–42, 179
Louis XIV of France, 4
Lovell, Philip, 98
lunch program, Japanese, 145–46, 147
MacArthur, Douglas, 147
MacFadden, Bernarr, 88, 90–93, 97, 101, 171, 177
“Madeira-Mamore case,” 89, 90
malnutrition, 110, 111, 115
Mamet, David, 163
Manhattan, Kansas, x
MAP (Mexican Agricultural Program), 152–53, 157. See also Green Revolution wheat programs
Markel, Howard, 35
Marshall Plan, 139, 140, 142
mass-produced white bread, 8–9, 24. See also industrial bread
McCance, R. A., 124
McCann, Alfred, 65, 88–90, 101
McCay, Clive, 112, 113
McCollum, E. V., 99
McNamara, Robert, 167
McWilliams, James, 71
meat, 4, 6, 10, 15, 18, 19, 48, 49, 82, 83, 86, 89, 92, 96, 107, 179, 189
Meatless Mondays, 107, 117
meatpacking industry, 18, 38, 49
Meehan, Mary Anne, 118
Mellon Institute, 26
Mencken, H. L., 129
Merck, 115, 116
Merton, Thomas, 168
Mesopotamia, 3
Messersmith, George, 150
Mexican Agricultural Program (MAP), 152–53, 157. See also Green Revolution wheat programs
Mexican Ministry of Agriculture, 152
“Mexican Miracle,” 134, 155–58
Mexican Revolution, 148–49
Mexico: Grupo Bimbo, 133, 160–61; industrial bread made in, 153–55; “Mexican Miracle” in, 134; pressure for U.S. shipments of wheat to, 150–51; wheat production in, 152–53; white bread eaten in, 148–50
Mickler, Ernst Matthew, 187
microbiology, 42
Middle Ages, European, 4
middle class: in counterculture of 1960s and 1970s, 169; high-end bakeries for, 183–84; professionalization of domestic labor and, 32, 33; and Progressive Era, 22, 23
military draft, 110
military mobilization, civilian diet and, 108–9
milk, 6; anxieties about tainted, 18; drinking raw, 17–18; unpasteurized, 47–48
millers, 66, 67, 68, 112–13, 114
minorities, blame placed for social change on, 21
Mi
tchell, Helen, 113
The Modest Miracle (film), 119
moldy bread, 42, 150
Montgomery, Alabama, 41
morality: Grahamism, 15, 81, 83–84, 85, 102; Physical Culture, 92–93; superiority of whole wheat bread, 147, 174, 178; white bread and, 64–65; white vs. dark bread and, 7, 78, 174
More Work for Mother (Cowan), 71
Mother Earth News, 169
Nader, Ralph, 178
NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement), 11
National Association of Master Bakers, 61
National Day of Bread, 172
National Food Board, 99
National Research Council for Defense, 118
national security: dreams of food and, 192; food and, 107–10, 130; wheat exports and, 138. See also peace and security, dreams of
Native American Indians, Grahamism and, 87
nativism, 21, 23, 35
“natural food,” 86
Naturally Good Baking (pamphlet), 174
naturalness, dream of, 190, 191, 194–95. See also resistance and status, dreams of
Neolithic groups, 3
New York: bakery regulation in, 39; bread consumption in, 20; cholera in, 15; cleanliness of bakeries in, 39–41; high-end bakeries in, 184; poor civilian health in, 110, 111; sliced bread in, 56; Ward Bakery in, 20–21, 25, 26–27, 35–36
New York Baking Company, 35
New York Globe, 89
New York public school system, 129
New York State Emergency Food Commission, 113
New York State Factory Investigating Committee, 39
New York Telegram, 97
New York Times, 52, 107, 143, 163, 175–76, 181
Nickerson, Janet, 143–44
North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), 11
North Country Alternatives, 167
Northwestern Miller, 100
“no-time” bread baking, 69–70
nuclear war, bread and preparing for, 128
nutrition: deficiencies in postwar Japan, 145; research on, 111–12; and synthetic enrichment of bread, 112–14; World War II–era, 110–11. See also diet; enriched bread
nutritional value: USDA statement on white bread, 100; of whole wheat vs. white bread, 96–97
nutrition classes, 119–20
nutrition research, 111–12
“Nutrition Weeks,” 119–20
Ogden Standard, 41
Olbermann, Keith, 74
oligopoly, 11, 24, 61, 71, 90, 178, 191
“Open Letter to the Next Farmer-in-Chief” (Pollan), 107
Orenstein, Peggy, 175–76
organic fermentation, 24
Orowheat bread, 161
Osgood, Eva, 97
pageants (eugenic fitness), 93–94
pain au levain, 11, 71, 193
Paleolithic era, 3
Paltrow, Gwyneth, 74
Panschar, William, 63
Parker, Jane, 126
Parran, Thomas, 118
patriarchy, 174, 175
Paz, Octavio, 149
peace and security, dreams of, 8, 133–61; and Bimbo Bakery, 153–55, 160–61; and changing Japanese diet, 144–48; and famine relief from U.S., 136–37; food access and, 159; impact of Mexico’s Green Revolution technology on, 155–58; industrial food production politics and, 134–36; and Mexican Bimbo bread, 133–34; negative impact of Green Revolution technology model, 158–59; revolutionary bread in Mexico, 148–51; and superiority of American food/bread, 140–44; and U.S. wheat/bread exports, 138–40; and wheat production in Mexico, 152–53
peasants: demand for bread by English, 5; Mexican Agricultural Program and, 157, 158
pellagra, 111
Pepperidge Farms, 179–80, 184
Perfection Bakeries, 44
Perfection Salad (Shapiro), 11
Perkins, Frances, 39, 40
Perkins, John H., 158
Perry County, Missouri, 23
Phillips, Cyrus, 40
Physical Culture (magazine), 93, 95
Physical Culture philosophy, 91–93, 94
Pierpont, John, 84
Pilcher, Jeffrey, 149
Pittsburgh, 25–26
Plan Puebla, 158
Plato, 7, 78
political fermentation, dream of, 190–95
politics. See food politics Pollan, Michael, 107
Pont-Saint-Esprit, France, 143
poolish, 69
poor diet: as cause of nation’s problems, 34; Physical Culture philosophy on, 92; poverty and, 15, 22–23, 36–37; racial eugenicists on, 36; in tenements, 35
Popenoe, Paul, 95
popular culture, eugenic ideals in, 93–94
poverty/the poor: bakeries associated with, 37–38; cholera outbreak and, 15, 81, 82–83; diet and, 15, 22–23; diversity of diet and, 100; enriched bread and, 114–17, 118; in How the Other Half Lives (Riis), 35; hygienic eating/diet and, 36–37
power: English “lords” and, 5; food and distribution of, 11, 12; making “good food” accessible to others, 12; relationships between bread and, 6. See also food politics; food power
probiotic foods, 194
professional cyclists, 73–74
professionalism, culture of, 32
Progressive Era, 21–23; concern over food purity, 34–35; sixties counterculture food reform and, 168
propaganda: Cold War, 140–41; Soviet, 139
Providence, Rhode Island, 26
Pryor, Richard, 173
public health, 32, 34
public health officials: on bread enrichment, 112, 120–21; and cholera pandemic (1832), 81; dietnational security connection and, 108; on Japanese school lunch program, 144, 146
Punjab region, India, 158
pure food. See food purity
Pure Food and Drug Act (1906), 19, 67
Pure Food laws, 115
Pure Foods Movement, 18–19, 68
purity and contagion, dreams of, 8, 17–49, 190–91; anxiety over germs and hygiene, 33–34; automatic baking and, 20; bread making science and, 41–43; bread panic of late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, 19–20; bread wrapping and, 43–44; concern over food safety and purity, 34–35; decrease in homemade baking and small bakeries, 44–45; domestic expertise and, 31–33; food reformers on healthy eating and, 35–37; immigrants, attitudes toward, 21; in Progressive Era, 21–23; and Pure Foods Movement, 18–19; raw milk and, 17–18; and shift to store-bought bread, 29–30; and triumph of industrial bread, 45–47; and Ward Baking Company, 20–21, 25–29
Pyler, E. J., 172
race: dreams of “real” food and, 29; “improving,” through diet, 93–95; Mexican white bread preferences and, 149. See also racial eugenics; racial fitness; racial hierarchies; racial purity; racism racial eugenics, 21, 36, 88, 93, 95–96
racial fitness, with white bread, 95–97
racial hierarchies, in Mexico, 149
racial purity: food purity and, 35;
whiteness of bread and, 64–66
racism, food safety concerns and, 49
rationing, food, 123
rations, bread, 3–4, 136, 137–38, 139
raw milk, 17–18
“real” food, dreams of, 29
Red Cross nutrition classes, 119
Red Scare, 14, 127
Red the cow, 17, 18, 47
refined wheat/flour, 65–66, 78, 83
regulation: food safety, 19; guidelines for bakeries, 38–39
Reid, Margaret, 110
The Republic (Plato), 7, 78
research: on bread consumption, 121–22; on enriched bread’s impact on health, 124; nutrition, 111–12
research-based meal planning, 32–33
resistance and status, dreams of, 8, 163–88; counterculture’s dream of good bread, 169–71; counterculture’s revolt against industrial white bread, 166–69; health breads and, 179–81; healthy eating and, 177–78; high-end bakeries, 182–85; homemade bread and, 181–82; social change by women in the kitchen, 174
–76; social status connection with health and, 186–88; white trash-white bread association, 163–65
Reynolds, Horace, 129
rice, 6; beriberi and, 115; bread as substitute for, 145–47; Japanese preferring, over bread, 148
Richards, Ellen, 33, 42
Right Food (Froude), 97
Riis, Jacob, 35
riots, bread, 4–5, 36, 139, 150
Roaring Twenties, 14
Robertson, Laurel, 175
Rockefeller Foundation, 151, 152
Rockford, Illinois, 121–22
Rohwedder, Otto, 55
Rome, ancient, 4
Ross, Delle, 97
Roszak, Theodore, 166
Routh, C. H., 42
Rudkin, Margaret, 179–80
Rumsey, Louis, 98
rural inequality, 157, 159
Russia, 3
rye bread, 96, 98, 112, 123, 142, 219n53
Saccharomyces cerevisiae, 2, 192–93, 194
safety, food. See food safety
Saguaro-Juniper Ranch (Tucson, Arizona), 10–11
Salter, James, 165
sanitation, 32; bakery bread lacking, 37–38; clean bread advertising and, 40–41; food purity and, 18–19, 190–91; homemade bread and, 61–62; immigrant labor in bakeries and, 39–40; and meatpacking industry, 18, 38; wrapped bread and, 43–44. See also hygiene
Sara Lee, 133, 161
Saveur, 187
Schlosser, Eric, 48
Schneider Baking Company, 126
school lunch program, Japanese, 145–46, 147
Science News Letter, 118, 128
“Science of Oven Management” (Ladies Home Journal), 60
Scientific American, 44–45, 68
scientific baking and eating: bleached flour, 66–68; continuous-mix baking, 69–70; fermentation process, 68–69; vs. homemade bread, 61–63; science of bread making, 60–61; and sliced bread, 55–57; and streamlined loaves, 57–60; Ward Bakery, 24–25. See also industrial bread; techno-scientific baking
scientific control, 65, 71, 191. See also control and abundance, dreams of
scientific expertise, 31–32
scientific housekeeping, 32–33
scurvy, 110
Seattle’s Little Bread Company, 174
Selective Service, 110
Sen, Amartya, 159
Senate Select Committee on Nutrition and Human Needs, 179
Servitje, Lorenzo, 134, 154, 160–61
Servitje, Roberto, 160–61
Seventh-Day Adventist Church, 86
seventies counterculture. See counterculture of the 1960s and 1970s