Introducing Psychology

by Carol Ciccarelli

  During this time these psychologists were able to draw direct correlation of external stimuli to behavior in patients. Thought in this discipline went so far as to question the existence of a human consciousness. It instead posited that what we thought of as consciousness was a behavioral response to stimuli. This idea was a direct descendant of the evolutionary psychology in the early enlightenment that sought an evolutionary need for a soul or consciousness. This was an extreme view however and was not held by many. As vast strides were being made in these experiments and reproduced around the globe some sought to implement and apply what was being learned. Great strides were made in educational and therapeutic treatments. As the human mind and behavior, its psychology, was being broken down and understood in finer detail, there were those who saw something that had been missed. Though Behaviorism had illuminated many fascinating discoveries it failed to shine light on one. Cognition, or the ability to process information, remained beyond the scope of explanation for the psychologists of the mid-1900s. Some believed cognition to be a behavior itself, the result of some stimuli not yet identified. Others pointed out that thought is the stimulus that drives behavior. Furthermore, problem solving abilities, particularly abstract math, relied upon no external stimuli. This school of thought is called Cognitive psychology and with the advances in computer technology and artificial intelligence remains popular to this day. Though this one oversight in the Behaviorist methodology was identified it did not wholly deconstruct the approach. In fact, it led to a radical Behaviorism that sought to investigate emotions and feelings as behaviors. Radical Behaviorism, or applied behavior analysis, persists to this day and is sometimes called behavior modification. There was also another approach that was critical of Behaviorism but for different reasons. This approach noticed human motivation and drive wasn’t accounted for. Not only that, but the psychological needs of humans were never addressed. The stimuli were carefully calculated, the responses were measured, but the well-being of the patient was never under scrutiny. Instead of quantifying experience this new discipline wanted to identify quality experience. Humanistic psychology sought to understand emotions and experiences identified as positive. This focus on the positive was in direct opposition to the psychoanalysis of the past. Similarly, Humanistic psychology separated from its predecessors in Behaviorism with the strict focus on quantifiable observations. These new psychologists were focused on quality of interaction and reaction. One of the foremost scholars in this new discipline was Abraham Maslow. He was focused on mental health and the human potential. A lasting impact he had on psychology was his introduction of the human hierarchy of needs. Along with his work in developmental psychology he created a classification system of needs for humans to reach their full potential. One of the fundamental differences between this and other psychological approaches is its focus on the healthy, or normal, needs of the human psyche. While psychoanalysis was used to determine and treat depression, Humanistic psychology could be used to live a fulfilling life. Also, in contrast to the almost clockwork explanation of human consciousness that Behaviorism provided, Humanistic psychology valued emotions and feelings as motivations in and of themselves and achieving them led to a happier healthier life. Humanistic psychology thought that the physical needs of an individual or society are the most pressing and motivating. Not only need for food and water but also shelter and good health. Next most important need is that of safety in a physical sense but also emotionally and mentally. This includes the knowledge that difficulty will appear but some form of insurance or help is available. If these basic needs are met a person or society can seek to achieve happiness by meeting other psychological needs. The feeling of belonging to a social network or being loved by other is the next motivation after safety. Once these have been reached a person then seeks to love themselves and finally reach self-actualization. Initially thought of as a step ladder, with the progress of Cognitive psychology this hierarchy is now viewed more as overlapping. One very interesting aspect of Maslow’s research was his focus on the healthy individuals. Historically researchers would investigate depressed or mentally ill people. These were, after all, the people whom they hoped to help. Maslow though wanted to help those not struggling to reach even greater heights. Throughout the course of his research he tested subjects he deemed successful and self-reportedly happy. While Maslow’s ideas gained popularity and are still somewhat en vogue today, the Humanistic approach to psychology fell out of favor.

  The psychological community had become used to repeatable experiments and the Humanistic methodology did not place value on these. Its most dedicated adherents thought human consciousness could never be experimented upon and quantified in the ways Behaviorists were used to. But as Humanistic lost traction as a viable methodology it did leave a lasting impact on the psychological profession as a whole. Now certain psychologists would focus on improving lives to make them better instead of fixing lives to make them normal. For centuries psychologist sought to understand the normal human being for understanding itself or for bringing those feeling odd back to normal. This shift in perspective was momentous and led to the development of a revolutionary new psychology. The moment that caused this shift came in the 1960s, when a group of Behaviorist psychologists noticed odd behavior in their experimental subjects. These observations led to the development of the theory of learned helplessness. This theory of learned helplessness is based on an experiment subject’s inability to change its own negative environment. After being exposed to undesirable conditions without being able to alter the conditions a subject will learn it is unable to change those circumstances and cease trying. This revelation and theory led to a hypothesis that some depression was a result of and perpetuated by a learned response of surrender. Further experiments and replication of the original seemed to support the theory. Based on these conclusions some researchers concluded that the inverse must also be true. That is, if helplessness can be learned then so can capability and potency. From this foundation was born Positive psychology. Instead of starting from illness and working toward normal, Positive psychology would work from normal toward better. Some of its foremost practitioners went so far as to propose an alternate manual for use as criteria for diagnosis and treatment of mental disorders. This new manual examined the psychological well-being and provided treatments for improving happiness in life. This school of thought differed from Humanistic psychology by embracing Behaviorist constraints on experimental requirements. Requiring the scientific rigor demanded by peer-reviewed journals and repeatable experiments. It also differed from Behaviorism in its acceptance and focus on the Humanist values in psychology. Essentially seeking to quantify the quality of human experience. Relying not only on self-report and case studies, but statistics as well. Today Positive psychology is well regarded around the world with academic programs and institutions on every continent as well as positively affecting millions of lives. Advances in the Cognitive sciences have allowed further experimentation that support many of the hypotheses posited by Positive psychology research. At the turn of the century Positive psychology became the focus of one of the largest psychological organizations in the world, leading to an increase in interest in the approach. What these researchers have learned is immediately applicable to daily life and has been scientifically supported to provide more well-being and fulfillment. The theory behind these practices and approach are outlined next.

  Positive Psychology Theory

  Positive psychology is a new approach to the understanding and betterment of the human mind. Because of the historical focus of the discipline there was little literature on the, what seemed to strict Behaviorists, more ephemeral aspects of the human psyche. Things such as motivation, love, and focus were difficult if not impossible to quantify so had never been studied with much seriousness. These new Positive psychologists had to develop a new language and methods and treatments for this new approach. This new approach and language would investigate what made life worth living and
exactly how to help people flourish. In order to do this Positive psychology focuses on positive experiences and emotions. Examples of these positive emotions are inspiration, happiness and joy. Another focus of this approach are positive traits or states of mind such as resilience, gratitude, and purpose. Also explored by Positive psychology are positive relationships among individuals and groups. As mentioned earlier, the researchers thought these Positive psychology foundations could be learned like helplessness had been learned in experiment subjects. In order to understand these positive experiences, emotions, and relationships they first needed to be defined then researched. Several decades of work and iterations of theory were run through. Each step along the way contributed valuable data and detail to the developing science. Initially, one of the founders of the discipline, Martin Seligman, proposed a theory of Authentic Happiness. This theory proposed that happiness had different values for different experiences. Within this theory Seligman introduced the good life as a three-tiered hierarchy. This hierarchy supposed that the seeking of different levels of happiness led to a similar level of general happiness in life. The three types of authentic happiness were identified as the pleasant life, the engaged life, and the meaningful life. The lowest rung of the ladder, the pleasant life, is mainly about the positive experiences and emotions associated with the physical world. A life that is led to pursue this type of happiness is called the pleasant life. Eating ice cream or enjoying movies, the simple pleasures in life are aspects of the pleasant life. Beyond the pleasant life, and subsequently more difficult to achieve, is the engaged life. This life is characterized by the pursuit of a state known as flow. Flow is also known as being “in the zone.” Flow is a state of mind where a person is focused on the task at hand. A person experiencing this can feel completely absorbed by whatever it is they’re doing. Flow can be experienced during and athletic event or music performance. Any activity in which a person’s happiness is derived from the total enclosure of the task at hand is in the state of flow. Another important aspect of achieving flow is the overcoming of an obstacle. This is important because it not only further defines this state of life but became a large contribution to further theories in the discipline. The need to overcome a challenge illuminated the existence of and need for character strengths. In order to experience the engaged life a person needed to have and exercise these character strengths. At the time these strengths were not fully defined but remained important to the engaged life. The third category of happy life was named the meaningful life. A person living here would engage in the pursuit of both the pleasant and engaged life in addition to a larger sense of purpose. In contrast to the engaged life, where flow could be all-consuming, the meaningful life filled a person with a sense of self-worth as they pursued a goal larger than them. Often times this can manifest itself as a religious or political belief but can be anything a person living this life chooses. This idea would also remain a strong influence in subsequent Positive psychology theory. Though this Authentic happiness model did not last it sought to define important distinctions in the Positive psychology research. The idea of happiness was too vague for researchers who wanted to remain scientifically rigorous and Seligman sought to further define it with his theory. By breaking happiness into distinct emotions and experiences researchers could develop accurate treatment and therapies in order to help people achieve happiness. This theory did come under criticism though. Now Positive psychology operates under the Well-being theory. This most recent development of the discipline is what the modern techniques for living fulfilling lives is based upon. Instead of focusing just on the seeking of happiness, now Positive psychology seeks to help people flourish by using all aspects of a persons’ mental and physical well-being.

  A central underpinning of this theory is the use of Character Strengths throughout a persons’ life. Each Character Strength is established by a strict set of criteria and has been tested in repeatable experiments. There are twenty-four Character Strengths that are inherent in all people in different levels. The use of the Character Strengths throughout life can help overcome obstacles and also make a good life more fulfilling. These Character Strengths are grouped into Virtues. These Virtues, or groups of strengths, tie together more closely those that are reliant upon and reinforce each other. The Virtues and strengths are discussed in more detail below.

  Wisdom

  The first category, Wisdom and Knowledge, deals with how a person learns and incorporates new ways of thinking. Creativity, Curiosity, Love of Learning and Perspective all fall within this category. This breakdown can be helpful to those wishing to identify weaknesses and developing strengths. Another Strength identified by the Well-Being theory is Creativity. Searching for new and different methods or outlooks is an important part of this aspect. Not necessarily the eschewing of conventional wisdom but a need to alter it in some way. The appreciation of creativity and the expression of creativity in thought and action are crucial to person’s well-being. The spontaneous creation or adaptation of an idea to a problem is a powerful expression of this Character Strength. Often those with this strength naturally do every day activities in a different way without thinking. This sort of subconscious actions brings pleasure to their life and increases their happiness. Changing habits or altering daily patterns is a way to increase Creativity in life. Allowing this Character Strength to grow and be used is also crucial to the learning of new information as well. Creativity is an essential component in the forming of wisdom and knowledge. Similar but different is the strength of Curiosity. Curiosity, like Creativity, is essential in learning. Asking questions and questioning existing understanding are closely linked. Though these strengths are closely related they are distinct from one another. This is also a core component of these Character Strengths, though they interact with one another they remain separate. Curiosity also influences how much pleasure is derived from learning. Those influenced strongly by this Character Strength derive pleasure from the exploration of new ideas. New experiences, simply because of their novelty, are the cause of happiness. Forcing Curiosity is regularly used to strengthen this attribute. Asking questions about common articles is a practice that builds the desire to explore new ideas. Sometimes asking questions about experiences an individual dislike is a strong exercise of Curiosity. Another of these strengths is Judgement. Judgement is a strength that is essential to decision making and learning. It is also very important to our interpersonal relationships and feeling of belonging to a greater purpose in life. Deep thought on issues and situations is a characteristic of this strength. The desire for more information and a thorough examination of all variables are important to people who have strong Judgement. Additionally, a strong sense of Judgement will lead a person to seek differing views in order to discredit or verify their views. Judgement is important to the way a person assimilates knowledge as they determine what is worthy of space in the memory. Often this is done by behaving as a devil’s advocate for or against held beliefs. Similarly, examining events in the past and developing different ways for engaging in them is a valuable exercise to develop Judgement. Love of Learning is another unique Character Strength. Similar to Curiosity, Love of Learning is exercised any time there is an opportunity to add to wisdom or understanding. There are many aspects in life that can be assisted by a strong Love of Learning. Developing this Character Strength is important to transformational leaders and teachers alike. Love of Learning also has a big impact on resilience and bouncing back from adversity. If a person is likely to view and difficult situation as an opportunity to learn they are more likely to develop resilient attitudes. To strengthen Love of Learning, exercises that place an individual in forced learning situations are used. Examples of these include learning new vocabulary words every day or sharing a fact with a friend or coworker.

  Courage

  The second category of Character Strengths is Courage, of which Bravery, Perseverance, Honesty, and Zest are a part. This category affects how a person handles adversity
and difficult situations in the face of fear or other negative emotions. Bravery is another Character Strength, and it corresponds to a person’s ability and willingness to face adversity. Not only to face adversity but also enjoy experiences where Bravery can be used. This includes acts of physical bravery where a limb or life may be risked and also the mental aspect of being aware of the risk. A key component of this strength is the awareness and thoughtfulness of the actions and the challenges. Bravery is a strength that also shows itself in facing difficult decisions or changes in one’s mind and life. This can be applied to an individual or a societal level, as in the application of morals. Moral Bravery is the penultimate expression of this Character Strength. This sort of Bravery not only challenges the individual but also their place in the world. This sort of added meaning to the show of this strength intensifies and build Bravery in a person. Seeking out arenas of life in which a person is uncomfortable is a way to test and build Bravery. Making difficult decisions are the building blocks to taking difficult actions. Through incremental change and practice Bravery can be built like the other Character Strengths. The thought patterns and actions associated with Bravery in the mind are strong and simply imitating them has powerful effects. Honesty is another Character Strength identified in the theory of well-being. This strength can be a deceptively simple one to develop. Living without pretense and false images is easier than it sounds. Honesty though, leads people to live a life of authenticity and truth. Initially a person needs to be honest with themselves. Emotions and motivations need to be honestly acknowledged first before a person can fully express Honesty. Once that is done, putting these into action in our lives and relationships must follow. Sometimes this can lead to conflict but builds a person’s feeling of potency and achievement. In addition, building Honesty increases the ability to overcome fearful situations. Perseverance is a Character Strength that deals most closely with a person’s willingness to achieve goals. This strength allows people to push through obstacles and maintain focus in order to complete an objective. When this strength is being exercised a sense of satisfaction and pleasure is gained in the completion of tasks and reaching goals. Perseverance is also being used and strengthened when focus is required to keep on target or when barriers are placed in the way of a particular goal. An important concept in Perseverance is the awareness of the presence of a distracting factor or barrier to success. Once a person is aware of whatever distraction may be present they can choose to continue with the task. This choice to exert effort in a particular direction is an essential component of Perseverance. Another concept central to Perseverance is a commitment of time and energy. Again, being aware of the requirement of commitment and making the choice is an exercise of Perseverance to the fullest extent. Positive psychologists suggest the setting of small goals to accomplish throughout a determined period of time to build this Character Strength. By monitoring the accomplishment or failure to accomplish the tasks a person can become aware and make a choice about achieving their goals. The tasks can be simple and written on a checklist but even maintaining the list will build Perseverance. The final Character Strength defined by Positive psychology is Zest. This strength can be best described as verve and energy for life. Zest is an essential strength to building resilience and achieving a meaningful life. This Character Strength exhibits itself in enthusiasm for tasks and challenges. It also has strong ties to physical well-being as this Character Strength is highly energy based. Building Zest in one’s life leads to greater enjoyment of activities and closer interpersonal relationships. Doing physical activities with people we love is a way to increase Zest.