surplus value in Marxism, the difference between a product’s real value and the wages of the worker who produced the product.
Surrealism an artistic movement that arose between World War I and World War II. Surrealists portrayed recognizable objects in unrecognizable relationships in order to reveal the world of the unconscious.
syncretism the combining of different forms of belief or practice, as, for example, when two gods are regarded as different forms of the same underlying divine force and are fused together.
tariffs duties (taxes) imposed on imported goods, usually to raise revenue and to discourage imports and protect domestic industries.
tetrarchy rule by four; the system of government established by Diocletian (284–305) in which the Roman Empire was divided into two parts, each ruled by an “Augustus” assisted by a “Caesar.”
theocracy a government ruled by a divine authority.
Third Estate one of the traditional tripartite divisions (orders) of European society based on heredity and quality rather than wealth or economic standing, first established in the Middle Ages and continuing into the eighteenth century; consisted of all who were not members of the clergy or nobility (the first two estates).
three-field system in medieval agriculture, the practice of dividing the arable land into three fields so that one could lie fallow while the others were planted in winter grains and spring crops.
tithe a portion of one’s harvest or income, paid by medieval peasants to the village church.
Torah the body of law in Hebrew Scripture, contained in the Pentateuch (the first five books of the Hebrew Bible).
totalitarian state a state characterized by government control over all aspects of economic, social, political, cultural, and intellectual life, the subordination of the individual to the state, and insistence that the masses be actively involved in the regime’s goals.
total war warfare in which all of a nation’s resources, including civilians at home as well as soldiers in the field, are mobilized for the war effort.
trade union an association of workers in the same trade, formed to help members secure better wages, benefits, and working conditions.
transformism the theory that societies evolve gradually.
transnational corporation another term for “a multinational corporation,” or a company with divisions in more than two countries.
transubstantiation a doctrine of the Roman Catholic Church that during the Eucharist, the substance of the bread and wine is miraculously transformed into the body and blood of Jesus.
trench warfare warfare in which the opposing forces attack and counterattack from a relatively permanent system of trenches protected by barbed wire; a characteristic of World War I.
triangular trade a pattern of trade in early modern Europe that connected Europe, Africa, and the Americas in an Atlantic economy.
tribunes of the plebs beginning in 494 B.C.E., Roman officials who were given the power to protect plebeians against arrest by patrician magistrates.
trivium grammar, rhetoric, and dialectic or logic; three of the seven liberal arts (the others made up the quadrivium) that were the basis of medieval and early modern education.
Truman Doctrine the doctrine, enunciated by Harry Truman in 1947, that the United States would provide economic aid to countries that said they were threatened by Communist expansion.
tyrant in an ancient Greek polis (or an Italian city-state during the Renaissance), a ruler who came to power in an unconstitutional way and ruled without being subject to the law.
ultraroyalists in nineteenth-century France, a group of aristocrats who sought to return to a monarchical system dominated by a landed aristocracy and the Catholic Church.
uncertainty principle a principle in quantum mechanics, posited by Heisenberg, that holds that one cannot determine the path of an electron because the very act of observing the electron would affect its location.
unconditional surrender complete, unqualified surrender of a belligerent nation.
utopian socialists intellectuals and theorists in the early nineteenth century who favored equality in social and economic conditions and wished to replace private property and competition with collective ownership and cooperation.
vassalage the granting of a ?ef, or landed estate, in exchange for providing military services to the lord and ful?lling certain other obligations such as appearing at the lord’s court when summoned and making a payment on the knighting of the lord’s eldest son.
vernacular the everyday language of a region, as distinguished from a language used for special purposes. For example, in medieval Paris, French was the vernacular, but Latin was used for academic writing and for classes at the University of Paris.
viceroy the administrative head of the provinces of New Spain and Peru in the Americas.
volkish thought the belief that German culture is superior and that the German people have a universal mission to save Western civilization from “inferior” races.
war communism Lenin’s policy of nationalizing industrial and other facilities and requisitioning the peasants’ produce during the civil war in Russia.
war guilt clause the clause in the Treaty of Versailles that declared that Germany (with Austria) was responsible for starting World War I and ordered Germany to pay reparations for the damage the Allies had suffered as a result of the war.
Warsaw Pact a military alliance, formed in 1955, in which Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania, and the Soviet Union agreed to provide mutual assistance.
welfare state a sociopolitical system in which the government assumes primary responsibility for the social welfare of its citizens by providing such things as social security, unemployment beneifts, and health care.
wergeld “money for a man.” In early Germanic law, a person’s value in monetary terms, paid by a wrongdoer to the family of the person who had been injured or killed.
world-machine Newton’s conception of the universe as one huge, regulated, and uniform machine that operated according to natural laws in absolute time, space, and motion.
wrought iron a high-quality iron first produced during the eighteenth century in Britain; manufactured by puddling, a process developed by Henry Cort that involved using coke to burn away the impurities in pig iron.
zemstvos local assemblies established in Russia in 1864 by Tsar Alexander II.
ziggurat a massive stepped tower on which a temple dedicated to the chief god or goddess of a Sumerian city was built.
Zionism an international movement that called for the establishment of a Jewish state or a refuge for Jews in Palestine.
Zollverein the customs union of all the German states except Austria, formed by Prussia in 1834.
Zoroastrianism a religion founded by the Persian Zoroaster in the seventh century B.C.E., characterized by worship of a supreme god, Ahuramazda, who represents the good against the evil spirit, identified as Ahriman.
CHAPTER NOTES
* * *
CHAPTER 11
1. Quoted in H. S. Lucas, “The Great European Famine of 1315, 1316, and 1317,” Speculum 5 (1930): 359.
2. Quoted in Christos S. Bartsocas, “Two Fourteenth-Century Descriptions of the ‘Black Death,’” Journal of the History of Medicine (October 1966): 395.
3. Quoted in David Herlihy, The Black Death and the Transformation of the West, ed. Samuel K. Cohn Jr. (Cambridge, Mass., 1997), p. 9.
4. Quoted in Rosemary Horrox, ed., The Black Death (Manchester, England, 1994), pp. 18–19.
5. Giovanni Boccaccio, Decameron, trans. Frances Winwar (New York, 1955), p. xxv.
6. Ibid., p. xxvi.
7. Jean Froissart, Chronicles, ed. and trans. Geoffrey Brereton (Harmondsworth, England, 1968), p. 111.
8. Quoted in James B. Ross and Mary M. McLaughlin, The Portable Medieval Reader (New York, 1949), pp. 218–219.
9. Quoted in Barbara W. Tuchman, A Distant Mirror (New York, 1978), p. 175
.
10. Froissart, Chronicles, p. 212.
11. Ibid., p. 89.
12. Oliver J. Thatcher and Edgar H. McNeal, eds., A Source Book for Medieval History (New York, 1905), p. 288.
13. Quoted in D. S. Chambers, The Imperial Age of Venice, 1380–1580 (London, 1970), p. 30.
14. Quoted in Robert Coogan, Babylon on the Rhône: A Translation of Letters by Dante, Petrarch, and Catherine of Siena (Washington, D.C., 1983), p. 115.
15. Quoted in Caroline Walker Bynum, Holy Feast and Holy Fast: The Religious Significance of Food to Medieval Women (Berkeley, Calif., 1987), p. 180.
16. Dante Alighieri, Divine Comedy, trans. Dorothy Sayers (New York, 1962), “Paradise,” canto 33, line 145.
17. Petrarch, Sonnets and Songs, trans. Anna Maria Armi (New York, 1968), no. 74, p. 127.
18. Quoted in Millard Meiss, Painting in Florence and Siena After the Black Death (Princeton, N.J., 1951), p. 161.
19. Geoffrey Chaucer, The Canterbury Tales, in Th e Portable Chaucer, ed. Theodore Morrison (New York, 1949), p. 67.
20. Christine de Pizan, The Book of the City of Ladies, trans. E. Jeffrey Richards (New York, 1982), pp. 83–84.
21. Quoted in Susan Mosher Stuard, “The Dominion of Gender, or How Women Fared in the High Middle Ages,” in Renate Bridenthal, Claudia Koonz, and Susan Stuard, eds., Becoming Visible: Women in European History, 3rd ed. (Boston, 1998), p. 147.
22. Quoted in David Herlihy, “Medieval Children,” in Bede K. Lackner and Kenneth R. Philp, eds., Essays on Medieval Civilization (Austin, Tex., 1978), p. 121.
23. Quoted in Jean Gimpel, The Medieval Machine (New York, 1976), p. 168.
CHAPTER 12
1. Quoted in Jacob Burckhardt, The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy, trans. S. G. C. Middlemore (London, 1960), p. 81.
2. Baldassare Castiglione, The Book of the Courtier, trans. Charles S. Singleton (Garden City, N.Y., 1959), pp. 288–289.
3. Quoted in De Lamar Jensen, Renaissance Europe (Lexington, Mass., 1981), p. 94.
4. Quoted in Iris Origo, “The Domestic Enemy: Th e Eastern Slaves in Tuscany in the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries,” Speculum 30 (1955): 333.
5. Quoted in Gene Brucker, ed., Two Memoirs of Renaissance Florence (New York, 1967), p. 132.
6. Quoted in Margaret L. King, Women of the Renaissance (Chicago, 1991), p. 3.
7. Quoted in Gene Brucker, ed., The Society of Renaissance Florence (New York, 1971), p. 190.
8. Quoted in Garrett Mattingly, Renaissance Diplomacy (Baltimore, 1964), p. 42.
9. Ibid., p. 95.
10. Niccolò Machiavelli, Th e Prince, trans. David Wootton (Indianapolis, 1995), p. 48.
11. Ibid., p. 55.
12. Ibid., p. 27.
13. Petrarch, “Epistle to Posterity,” Letters from Petrarch, trans. Morris Bishop (Bloomington, Ind., 1966), pp. 6–7.
14. Quoted in Frances Yates, Giordano Bruno and the Hermetic Tradition (Chicago, 1964), p. 211.
15. Giovanni Pico della Mirandola, Oration on the Dignity of Man, in E. Cassirer, P. O. Kristeller, and J. H. Randall Jr., eds., The Renaissance Philosophy of Man (Chicago, 1948), p. 225.
16. Ibid., pp. 247, 249.
17. Quoted in W. H. Woodward, Vittorino da Feltre and Other Humanist Educators (Cambridge, 1897), p. 102.
18. Quoted in Iris Origo, The Light of the Past (New York, 1959), p. 136.
19. Quoted in Elizabeth G. Holt, ed., A Documentary History of Art (Garden City, N.Y., 1957), vol. 1, p. 286.
20. Quoted in Rosa M. Letts, The Cambridge Introduction to Art: Th e Renaissance (Cambridge, 1981), p. 86.
21. Quoted in Johan Huizinga, The Waning of the Middle Ages (Garden City, N.Y., 1956), p. 265.
CHAPTER 13
1. Desiderius Erasmus, Th e Paraclesis, in John Olin, ed., Christian Humanism and the Reformation: Selected Writings of Erasmus, 3rd ed. (New York, 1987), p. 101.
2. Thomas More, Utopia, trans. Paul Turner (Harmondsworth, England, 1965), p. 76.
3. Quoted in Alister E. McGrath, Reformation Thought: An Introduction (Oxford, 1988), p. 72.
4. Quoted in Gordon Rupp, Luther’s Progress to the Diet of Worms (New York, 1964), p. 82.
5. Martin Luther, On the Freedom of a Christian Man, quoted in E. G. Rupp and Benjamin Drewery, eds., Martin Luther (New York, 1970), p. 50.
6. Quoted in Roland Bainton, Here I Stand: A Life of Martin Luther (New York, 1950), p. 144.
7. Quoted in De Lamar Jensen, Reformation Europe (Lexington, Mass., 1981), p. 83.
8. Quoted in Lee Palmer Wandel, Voracious Idols and Violent Hands: Iconoclasm in Reformation Zürich, Strasbourg, and Basel (New York, 1995), p. 81.
9. Quoted in A. G. Dickens and Dorothy Carr, eds., Th e Reformation in England to the Accession of Elizabeth I (New York, 1968), p. 72.
10. Quoted in Lewis W. Spitz, The Renaissance and Reformation Movements (Chicago, 1971), p. 414.
11. John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion, trans. John Allen (Philadelphia, 1936), vol. 1, p. 220.
12. Ibid., vol. 1, p. 228; vol. 2, p. 181.
13. Quoted in Roland Bainton, Women of the Reformation in Germany and Italy (Minneapolis, 1971), p. 154.
14. Quoted in Bonnie S. Anderson and Judith P. Zinsser, A History of Their Own: Women in Europe from Prehistory to the Present (New York, 1988), vol. 1, p. 259.
15. Quoted in John A. Phillips, Eve: The History of an Idea (New York, 1984), p. 105.
16. Quoted in John O’Malley, The First Jesuits (Cambridge, Mass., 1993), p. 76.
17. Quoted in R. J. Knecht, The French Wars of Religion, 1559–1598, 2nd ed. (New York, 1996), p. 47.
18. Quoted in Mack P. Holt, The French Wars of Religion, 1562–1629 (Cambridge, 1995), p. 86.
19. Quoted in Garrett Mattingly, The Armada (Boston, 1959), pp. 216–217.
20. Quoted in Th eodore Schieder, Handbuch der Europäischen Geschichte (Stuttgart, 1979), vol. 3, p. 579.
CHAPTER 14
1. Quoted in J. R. Hale, Renaissance Exploration (New York, 1968), p. 32.
2. Quoted in J. H. Parry, The Age of Reconnaissance: Discovery, Exploration, and Settlement, 1450 to 1650 (New York, 1963), p. 33.
3. Quoted in Richard B. Reed, “The Expansion of Europe,” in Richard De Molen, ed., The Meaning of the Renaissance and Reformation (Boston, 1974), p. 308.
4. Quoted in K. N. Chaudhuri, Trade and Civilization in the Indian Ocean: An Economic History from the Rise of Islam to 1750 (Cambridge, 1985), p. 65.
5. Quoted in Ian Cameron, Explorers and Exploration (New York, 1991), p. 42.
6. Bernal Díaz, The Conquest of New Spain (New York, 1963), pp. 405–406.
7. Quoted in J. H. Parry and Robert G. Keith, eds., New Iberian World, vol. 2 (New York, 1984), pp. 309–310.
8. Quoted in J. H. Elliott, Empires of the Atlantic World (New Haven, Conn., 2006), p. 125.
9. Quoted in A. Andrea and J. H. Overfield, The Human Record: Sources of Global History, 3rd ed. (Boston, 1998), p. 460.
10. Quoted in Basil Davidson, Africa in History: Themes and Outlines, rev. ed. (New York, 1991), p. 198.
11. Quoted in Cameron, Explorers and Exploration, p. 42.
12. Quoted in Louis J. Gallagher, ed. and trans., China in the Sixteenth Century: The Journals of Matthew Ricci (New York, 1953), p. 154.
13. Quoted in G. V. Scammell, The First Imperial Age: European Overseas Expansion, c. 1400–1715 (London, 1989), p. 62.
14. Miguel Leon-Portilla, ed., The Broken Spears: The Aztec Account of the Conquest of Mexico (Boston, 1969), p. 51.
CHAPTER 15
1. Quoted in Joseph Klaits, Servants of Satan: The Age of the Witch Hunts (Bloomington, Ind., 1985), p. 68.
2. Quoted in Peter H. Wilson, The Thirty Years War: Europe’s Tragedy (Cambridge, Mass., 2009), p. 783.
3. Quoted in John B. Wolf, Louis XIV (New York, 1968), p. 134.
4. Quoted in James B. Collins, The State in Early Modern France (Cambridge, 1995), p. 130.
> 5. Quoted in Wolf, Louis XIV, p. 618.
6. Quoted in D. H. Pennington, Europe in the Seventeenth Century, 2nd ed. (New York, 1989), p. 494.
7. Quoted in J. H. Elliot, Imperial Spain, 1469–1716 (New York, 1963), p. 306.
8. Quoted in B. H. Sumner, Peter the Great and the Emergence of Russia (New York, 1962), p. 122.
9. Quoted in Simon Schama, A History of Britain, vol. 2, Th e Wars of the British, 1603–1776 (New York, 2001), pp. 182, 185.
CHAPTER 16
1. Quoted in Alan G. R. Smith, Science and Society in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries (London, 1972), p. 59.
2. Edward MacCurdy, The Notebooks of Leonardo da Vinci (London, 1948), vol. 1, p. 634.
3. Ibid., p. 636.
4. Frances Yates, Giordano Bruno and the Hermetic Tradition (New York, 1964), p. 448.
5. Ibid., p. 450.
6. Quoted in Smith, Science and Society, p. 97.
7. Logan P. Smith, Life and Letters of Sir Henry Wotton (Oxford, 1907), vol. 1, pp. 486–487.
8. Quoted in John H. Randall, The Making of the Modern Mind (Boston, 1926), p. 234.
9. Quoted in Smith, Science and Society, p. 124.
10. Quoted in Betty J. Dobbs, The Foundations of Newton’s Alchemy (Cambridge, 1975), pp. 13–14.
11. Jolande Jacobi, ed., Paracelsus: Selected Writings (New York, 1965), pp. 5–6.
12. Ibid., p. 21.
13. Quoted in Londa Schiebinger, The Mind Has No Sex? Women in the Origins of Modern Science (Cambridge, Mass., 1989), pp. 52–53.
14. Ibid., p. 85.
15. Quoted in Phyllis Stock, Better than Rubies: A History of Women’s Education (New York, 1978), p. 16.
16. René Descartes, Philosophical Writings, ed. and trans. Norman K. Smith (New York, 1958), p. 95.
17. Ibid., pp. 118–119.
18. Francis Bacon, The Great Instauration, trans. Jerry Weinberger (Arlington Heights, Ill., 1989), pp. 2, 8, 16, 21.
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