Who We Are and How We Got Here
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36. A. P. Fitzpatrick, The Amesbury Archer and the Boscombe Bowmen: Bell Beaker Burials at Boscombe Down, Amesbury, Wiltshire (Salisbury, UK: Wessex Archaeology Reports, 2011).
37. I. Olalde et al., “The Beaker Phenomenon and the Genomic Transformation of Northwest Europe,” bioRxiv (2017): doi.org/10.1101/135962.
38. L. M. Cassidy et al., “Neolithic and Bronze Age Migration to Ireland and Establishment of the Insular Atlantic Genome,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the U.S.A. 113 (2016): 368–73.
39. Colin Renfrew, Archaeology and Language: The Puzzle of Indo-European Origins (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997).
40. Ibid.
41. P. Bellwood, “Human Migrations and the Histories of Major Language Families,” in The Global Prehistory of Human Migration (Chichester, UK, and Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2013), 87–95.
42. Renfrew, Archaeology and Language; Peter Bellwood, First Farmers: The Origins of Agricultural Societies (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
43. Haak et al., “Massive Migration”; Allentoft et al., “Bronze Age Eurasia.”
44. D. W. Anthony and D. Ringe, “The Indo-European Homeland from Linguistic and Archaeological Perspectives,” Annual Review of Linguistics 1 (2015): 199–219.
45. Léon Poliakov, The Aryan Myth: A History of Racist and Nationalist Ideas in Europe (New York: Basic Books, 1974).
6 The Collision That Formed India
1. The Rigveda, trans. Stephanie W. Jamison and Joel P. Brereton (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014), hymns 1.33, 1.53, 2.12, 3.30, 3.34, 4.16, and 4.28.
2. M. Witzel, “Early Indian History: Linguistic and Textual Parameters,” in The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia: Language, Material Culture and Ethnicity, ed. George Erdosy (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1995), 85–125.
3. Rita P. Wright, The Ancient Indus: Urbanism, Economy, and Society (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010); Gregory L. Possehl, The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective (Lanham, MD: AltaMira Press, 2002).
4. Ibid.
5. Asko Parpola, Deciphering the Indus Script (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994); S. Farmer, R. Sproat, and M. Witzel, “The Collapse of the Indus-Script Thesis: The Myth of a Literate Harappan Civilization,” Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies 11 (2004): 19–57.
6. Richard H. Meadow, ed., Harappa Excavations 1986–1990: A Multidisciplinary Approach to Third Millennium Urbanism (Madison, WI: Prehistory Press, 1991); A. Lawler, “Indus Collapse: The End or the Beginning of an Asian Culture?,” Science 320 (2008): 1281–83.
7. Jaan Puhvel, Comparative Mythology (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987).
8. Wright, The Ancient Indus; Possehl, The Indus Civilization.
9. Alfred Rosenberg, The Myth of the Twentieth Century: An Evaluation of the Spiritual-Intellectual Confrontations of Our Age, trans. Vivian Bird (Torrance, CA: Noontide Press, 1982).
10. Léon Poliakov, The Aryan Myth: A History of Racist and Nationalist Ideas in Europe (New York: Basic Books, 1974).
11. B. Arnold, “The Past as Propaganda: Totalitarian Archaeology in Nazi Germany,” Antiquity 64 (1990): 464–78.
12. Bryan Ward-Perkis, The Fall of Rome and the End of Civilization (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005).
13. Peter Bellwood, First Farmers: The Origins of Agricultural Societies (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
14. Ibid.
15. M. Witzel, “Substrate Languages in Old Indo-Aryan (Rgvedic, Middle and Late Vedic),” Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies 5 (1999): 1–67.
16. K. Thangaraj et al., “Reconstructing the Origin of Andaman Islanders,” Science 308 (2005): 996; K. Thangaraj et al., “In situ Origin of Deep Rooting Lineages of Mitochondrial Macrohaplogroup ‘M’ in India,” BMC Genomics 7 (2006): 151.
17. R. S. Wells et al., “The Eurasian Heartland: A Continental Perspective on Y-chromosome Diversity,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the U.S.A. 98 (2001): 10244–49; M. Bamshad et al., “Genetic Evidence on the Origins of Indian Caste Populations,” Genome Research 11 (2001): 994–1004; I. Thanseem et al., “Genetic Affinities Among the Lower Castes and Tribal Groups of India: Inference from Y Chromosome and Mitochondrial DNA,” BMC Genetics 7 (2006): 42.
18. Thangaraj et al., “Andaman Islanders.”
19. D. Reich et al., “Reconstructing Indian Population History,” Nature 461 (2009): 489–94.
20. R. E. Green et al., “A Draft Sequence of the Neandertal Genome,” Science 328 (2010): 710–22.
21. Thangaraj et al., “Deep Rooting Lineages.”
22. Reich et al., “Reconstructing Indian Population History”; P. Moorjani et al., “Genetic Evidence for Recent Population Mixture in India,” American Journal of Human Genetics 93 (2013): 422–38.
23. Ibid.
24. Irawati Karve, Hindu Society—An Interpretation (Pune, India: Deccan College Post Graduate and Research Institute, 1961).
25. P. A. Underhill et al., “The Phylogenetic and Geographic Structure of Y-Chromosome Haplogroup R1a,” European Journal of Human Genetics 23 (2015): 124–31.
26. S. Perur, “The Origins of Indians: What Our Genes Are Telling Us,” Fountain Ink, December 3, 2013, http://fountainink.in/?p=4669&all=1.
27. K. Bryc et al., “The Genetic Ancestry of African Americans, Latinos, and European Americans Across the United States,” American Journal of Human Genetics 96 (2015): 37–53.
28. L. G. Carvajal-Carmona et al., “Strong Amerind/White Sex Bias and a Possible Sephardic Contribution Among the Founders of a Population in Northwest Colombia,” American Journal of Human Genetics 67 (2000): 1287–95; G. Bedoya et al., “Admixture Dynamics in Hispanics: A Shift in the Nuclear Genetic Ancestry of a South American Population Isolate,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the U.S.A. 103 (2006): 7234–39.
29. Moorjani et al., “Recent Population Mixture.”
30. Ibid.
31. Romila Thapar, Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002); Karve, Hindu Society; Susan Bayly, Caste, Society and Politics in India from the Eighteenth Century to the Modern Age (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999); M. N. Srinivas, Caste in Modern India and Other Essays (Bombay: Asia Publishing House, 1962); Louis Dumont, Homo Hierarchicus: The Caste System and Its Implications (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980).
32. Kumar Suresh Singh, People of India: An Introduction (People of India National Series) (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2002); K. C. Malhotra and T. S. Vasulu, “Structure of Human Populations in India,” in Human Population Genetics: A Centennial Tribute to J. B. S. Haldane, ed. Partha P. Majumder (New York: Plenum Press, 1993), 207–34.
33. Karve, “Hindu Society.”
34. Ibid.
35. Nicholas B. Dirks, Castes of Mind: Colonialism and the Making of Modern India (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2001); N. Boivin, “Anthropological, Historical, Archaeological and Genetic Perspectives on the Origins of Caste in South Asia,” in The Evolution and History of Human Populations in South Asia, ed. Michael D. Petraglia and Bridget Allchin (Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer, 2007), 341–62.
36. Reich et al., “Reconstructing Indian Population History.”
37. M. Arcos-Burgos and M. Muenke, “Genetics of Population Isolates,” Clinical Genetics 61 (2002): 233–47.
38. N. Nakatsuka et al., “The Promise of Discovering Population-Specific Disease-Associated Genes in South Asia,” Nature Genetics 49 (2017): 1403–7.
39. Reich et al., “Reconstructing Indian Population History.”
40. I. Manoharan et al., “Naturally Occurring Mutation Leu307Pro of Human Butyrylcholinesterase in the Vysya Community of India,” Pharmacogenetics and Genomics 16 (2006): 461–68.
41. A. E. Raz, “Can Population-Based Carrier Screening Be Left to the Community?,” Journal of Genetic Counseling 18 (2009): 114–18.
42. I. Lazaridis et al., “Genomic Insights into t
he Origin of Farming in the Ancient Near East,” Nature 536 (2016): 419–24; F. Broushaki et al., “Early Neolithic Genomes from the Eastern Fertile Crescent,” Science 353 (2016): 499–503.
43. Ibid.
44. Lazaridis et al., “Genomic Insights.”
45. Unpublished results from David Reich’s laboratory.
7 In Search of Native American Ancestors
1. Betty Mindlin, Unwritten Stories of the Suruí Indians of Rondônia (Austin: Institute of Latin American Studies; distributed by the University of Texas Press, 1995).
2. D. Reich et al., “Reconstructing Native American Population History,” Nature 488 (2012): 370–74.
3. P. Skoglund et al., “Genetic Evidence for Two Founding Populations of the Americas,” Nature 525 (2015): 104–8.
4. P. D. Heintzman et al., “Bison Phylogeography Constrains Dispersal and Viability of the Ice Free Corridor in Western Canada,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the U.S.A. 113 (2016): 8057–63; M. W. Pedersen et al., “Postglacial Viability and Colonization in North America’s Ice-Free Corridor,” Nature 537 (2016): 45–49.
5. José de Acosta, Historia Natural y Moral de las Indias: En que se Tratan las Cosas Notables del Cielo y Elementos, Metales, Plantas y Animales de Ellas y los Ritos, Ceremonias, Leyes y Gobierno y Guerras de los Indios (Seville: Juan de León, 1590).
6. David J. Meltzer, First Peoples in a New World: Colonizing Ice Age America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2009).
7. J. H. Greenberg, C. G. Turner II, and S. L. Zegura, “The Settlement of the Americas: A Comparison of the Linguistic, Dental, and Genetic Evidence,” Current Anthropology 27 (1986): 477–97.
8. P. Forster, R. Harding, A. Torroni, and H.-J. Bandelt, “Origin and Evolution of Native American mtDNA Variation: A Reappraisal,” American Journal of Human Genetics 59 (1996): 935–45; E. Tamm et al., “Beringian Standstill and Spread of Native American Founders,” PloS One 2 (2017): e829.
9. T. D. Dillehay et al., “Monte Verde: Seaweed, Food, Medicine, and the Peopling of South America,” Science 320 (2008): 784–86.
10. D. L. Jenkins et al., “Clovis Age Western Stemmed Projectile Points and Human Coprolites at the Paisley Caves,” Science 337 (2012): 223–28.
11. M. Rasmussen et al., “The Genome of a Late Pleistocene Human from a Clovis Burial Site in Western Montana,” Nature 506 (2014): 225–29.
12. Povos Indígenas No Brasil, “Karitiana: Biopiracy and the Unauthorized Collection of Biomedical Samples,” https://pib.socioambiental.org/en/povo/karitiana/389.
13. N. A. Garrison and M. K. Cho, “Awareness and Acceptable Practices: IRB and Researcher Reflections on the Havasupai Lawsuit,” AJOB Primary Research 4 (2013): 55–63; A. Harmon, “Indian Tribe Wins Fight to Limit Research of Its DNA,” New York Times, April 21, 2010.
14. Ronald P. Maldonado, “Key Points for University Researchers When Considering a Research Project with the Navajo Nation,” http://nptao.arizona.edu/sites/nptao/files/navajonationkeyresearchrequirements_0.pdf.
15. Rebecca Skloot, The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks (New York: Crown, 2010).
16. B. L. Shelton, “Consent and Consultation in Genetic Research on American Indians and Alaska Natives,” http://www.ipcb.org/publications/briefing_papers/files/consent.html.
17. R. R. Sharp and M. W. Foster, “Involving Study Populations in the Review of Genetic Research,” Journal of Law, Medicine and Ethics 28 (2000): 41–51; International HapMap Consortium, “The International HapMap Project,” Nature 426 (2003): 789–96.
18. T. Egan, “Tribe Stops Study of Bones That Challenge History,” New York Times, September 30, 1996; Douglas W. Owsley and Richard L. Jantz, Kennewick Man: The Scientific Investigation of an Ancient American Skeleton (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 2014); D. J. Meltzer, “Kennewick Man: Coming to Closure,” Antiquity 348 (2015): 1485–93.
19. M. Rasmussen et al., “The Ancestry and Affiliations of Kennewick Man,” Nature 523 (2015): 455–58.
20. Ibid.
21. J. Lindo et al., “Ancient Individuals from the North American Northwest Coast Reveal 10,000 Years of Regional Genetic Continuity,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the U.S.A. 114 (2017): 4093–98.
22. Samuel J. Redman, Bone Rooms: From Scientific Racism to Human Prehistory in Museums (Cambridge, MA, and London: Harvard University Press, 2016).
23. M. Rasmussen et al., “An Aboriginal Australian Genome Reveals Separate Human Dispersals into Asia,” Science 334 (2011): 94–98.
24. Rasmussen et al., “Genome of a Late Pleistocene Human.”
25. Rasmussen et al., “Ancestry and Affiliations of Kennewick Man.”
26. A. S. Malaspinas et al., “A Genomic History of Aboriginal Australia,” Nature 538 (2016): 207–14.
27. E. Callaway, “Ancient Genome Delivers ‘Spirit Cave Mummy’ to US tribe,” Nature 540 (2016): 178–79.
28. Ibid.
29. M. Livi-Bacci, “The Depopulation of Hispanic America After the Conquest,” Population and Development Review 32 (2006): 199–232; Lewis H. Morgan, Ancient Society; Or, Researches in the Lines of Human Progress from Savagery Through Barbarism to Civilization (Chicago: Charles H. Kerr, 1909).
30. Reich et al., “Reconstructing Native American Population History.”
31. Lindo et al., “Ancient Individuals.”
32. Lyle Campbell and Marianne Mithun, The Languages of Native America: Historical and Comparative Assessment (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1979).
33. L. Campbell, “Comment on Greenberg, Turner and Zegura,” Current Anthropology 27 (1986): 488.
34. Peter Bellwood, First Migrants: Ancient Migration in Global Perspective (Chichester, West Sussex, UK / Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2013).
35. Reich et al., “Reconstructing Native American Population History.”
36. W. A. Neves and M. Hubbe, “Cranial Morphology of Early Americans from Lagoa Santa, Brazil: Implications for the Settlement of the New World,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the U.S.A. 102 (2005): 18309–14.
37. Rasmussen et al., “Ancestry and Affiliations of Kennewick Man.”
38. P. Skoglund et al., “Genetic Evidence for Two Founding Populations of the Americas,” Nature 525 (2015): 104–8.
39. Povos Indígenas No Brasil, “Surui Paiter: Introduction,” https://pib.socioambiental.org/en/povo/surui-paiter; R. A. Butler, “Amazon Indians Use Google Earth, GPS to Protect Forest Home,” Mongabay: News and Inspiration from Nature’s Frontline, November 15, 2006, https://news.mongabay.com/2006/11/amazon-indians-use-google-earth-gps-to-protect-forest-home/.
40. “Karitiana: Biopiracy and the Unauthorized Collection.”
41. Povos Indígenas No Brasil, “Xavante: Introduction,” https://pib.socioambiental.org/en/povo/xavante.
42. M. Raghavan et al., “Genomic Evidence for the Pleistocene and Recent Population History of Native Americans,” Science 349 (2015): aab3884.
43. E. J. Vajda, “A Siberian Link with Na-Dene Languages,” in Anthropological Papers of the University of Alaska: New Series, ed. James M. Kari and Ben Austin Potter, 5 (2010): 33–99.
44. Reich et al., “Reconstructing Native American Population History.”
45. M. Rasmussen et al., “Ancient Human Genome Sequence of an Extinct Palaeo-Eskimo,” Nature 463 (2010): 757–62.
46. M. Raghavan et al., “The Genetic Prehistory of the New World Arctic,” Science 345 (2014): 1255832.
47. P. Flegontov et al., “Paleo-Eskimo Genetic Legacy Across North America,” bioRxiv (2017): doi.org/10.1101/203018.
48. Flegontov et al., “Paleo-Eskimo Genetic Legacy.”
49. T. M. Friesen, “Pan-Arctic Population Movements: The Early Paleo-Inuit and Thule Inuit Migrations,” in The Oxford Handbook of the Prehistoric Arctic, ed. T. Max Friesen and Owen K. Mason (New York: Oxford University Press, 2016), 673–92.
50. Reich
et al., “Reconstructing Native American Population History.”
51. J. Diamond and P. Bellwood, “Farmers and Their Languages: The First Expansions,” Science 300 (2003): 597–603; Peter Bellwood, First Farmers: The Origins of Agricultural Societies (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005).
52. R. R. da Fonseca et al., “The Origin and Evolution of Maize in the Southwestern United States,” Nature Plants 1 (2015): 14003.
8 The Genomic Origins of East Asians
1. X. H. Wu et al., “Early Pottery at 20,000 Years Ago in Xianrendong Cave, China,” Science 336 (2012): 1696–1700.
2. R. X. Zhu et al., “Early Evidence of the Genus Homo in East Asia,” Journal of Human Evolution 55 (2008): 1075–85.
3. C. C. Swisher III et al., “Age of the Earliest Known Hominids in Java, Indonesia,” Science 263 (1994): 1118–21; Peter Bellwood, First Islanders: Prehistory and Human Migration in Island Southeast Asia (Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2017).
4. D. Richter et al., “The Age of the Hominin Fossils from Jebel Irhoud, Morocco, and the Origins of the Middle Stone Age,” Nature 546 (2017): 293–96; J. G. Fleagle, Z. Assefa, F. H. Brown, and J. J. Shea, “Paleoanthropology of the Kibish Formation, Southern Ethiopia: Introduction,” Journal of Human Evolution 55 (2008): 360–65.
5. T. Sutikna et al., “Revised Stratigraphy and Chronology for Homo floresiensis at Liang Bua in Indonesia,” Nature 532 (2016): 366–69.
6. Y. Ke et al., “African Origin of Modern Humans in East Asia: A Tale of 12,000 Y Chromosomes,” Science 292 (2001): 1151–53.
7. J. Qiu, “The Forgotten Continent: Fossil Finds in China Are Challenging Ideas About the Evolution of Modern Humans and Our Closest Relatives,” Nature 535 (2016): 218–20.
8. R. J. Rabett and P. J. Piper, “The Emergence of Bone Technologies at the End of the Pleistocene in Southeast Asia: Regional and Evolutionary Implications,” Cambridge Archaeological Journal 22 (2012): 37–56; M. C. Langley, C. Clarkson, and S. Ulm, “From Small Holes to Grand Narratives: The Impact of Taphonomy and Sample Size on the Modernity Debate in Australia and New Guinea,” Journal of Human Evolution 61 (2011): 197–208; M. Aubert et al., “Pleistocene Cave Art from Sulawesi, Indonesia,” Nature 514 (2014): 223–27.