The Irony of Manifest Destiny
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Franklin, Benjamin, 46, 48, 51
free market system, 204n9
French Revolution, 6, 32–33, 50
frontier thesis (U.S. history), 58
Gaddis, John Lewis, 161
Galbraith, John Kenneth, 170
Gates, Robert M., 94, 95, 165
Gay, Peter, 2, 40
George III, 46
Germany, 72, 101, 190. See also Hitler, Adolf
globalization, 127
Goldstein, Gordon M., 81n
Gorbachev, Mikhail, 9, 154
Gordon, Charles, 124
Grant, Ulysses S., 70
Gray, John, 27–28, 86–87
“Greater Middle East,” 85
Great Schism (Christianity), 25, 196n2
Greek myths, 3
Greek Paradigm, 4, 6
Greenspan, Alan, 21n, 100, 204n9
Guggenheim Museum, New York, 45–47
gun ownership, 59
Halle, Louis, 202n6
Hamas, 85, 130
hatred, 84, 186–187, 200n5
Hegel, G. W. F., 6
Hendrickson, David C., 170
heresy, 22, 25–28, 30–31
historicist theories, 86–87
Hitchens, Christopher, 196n3
Hitler, Adolf, 8, 37, 74, 88–89, 190, 198n6
Hizbollah, 85
Hizb ut-Tahrir (HT), 133–134, 135n
Holy Roman Empire, 23
Hubris, 4, 6, 186
Huckabee, Mike, 201n6
Hulsman, John, 203n6
humanitarian intervention, 182–184
Huntington, Samuel, 73, 103–106, 109, 123, 151
Hussein, Saddam, 161–162
ideology. See also nationalism; utopianism, secular
decision-making and, 88–89
of democratic progress and inevitability, 15, 86–88, 122
secular emergence of ideological extremism, 2
secular utopian ideology and domination efforts by national leaders, 6–10
world control and modern political ideology, 12–13
Ignatieff, Michael, 184
imperialism, xii, 155–157, 178, 184–190
India, 204n10
Indochina, 79–80, 159, 180
integrism, Islamic, 129
interventionism, arguments against, 78–81, 177–184
Iran, 96, 180
Iraq war
Evangelical eschatology and, 64–65
Gaddis on, 161
motives for, 85, 90, 105, 161–162
private contractors, 167
Islam
“clash of civilizations” theory and, 104, 106–110
crisis within, 116–118, 127–129
expansionism in, 9n
history of, 113–116
jihadism, 40–41
monotheism and, 2, 110–113
political system and modernizations, 118–122
Qur’an, 117, 117n
reaction to Western intrusion, 123
violence and, 123
Islamic Jihad, 130
Islamist extremist or fundamentalist groups
American belief in scope of, 136
Muslim Brotherhood, 130–131
nature of, 13–14
Nazi themes in, 132
new caliphate notion, 132–137
as passing phenomenon, 150–151
as political, 9n, 41
as religious nationalism, 129–132
Salafists, 130
U.S. support for, 128–129
Wahhabism, 128, 129, 137–138
Western failure against, 130
isolationism, U.S., 10, 13, 43–45, 74, 75–76, 177
Israel, 40, 63, 85, 181–182, 208n12
Italian fascism, 9, 36
James, Henry, 55
Japan, 8n, 101
Jefferson, Thomas, 44, 48, 68
Jesus of Nazareth, 23, 24, 110
jihadism, 40–41
Jim Crow, 60–61
Johnson, Chalmers, 203n6
Johnson, Lyndon, 61
Judaism and Jews, 1, 22, 132. See also Israel
Kahn, Herman, 205n10
Kazin, Alfred, 51, 53
Kennan, George F., 14–15, 74–77, 177–178, 185, 194n5, 201n5
Kennedy, John F., 81n
Khmer Rouge, 9–10, 126
Khrushchev, Nikita, 203n7
Kilcullen, David, 159–160
Kristianasen, Wendy, 130
Kissinger, Henry, 135
Koestler, Arthur, 39, 198n7
Laos, 80
Lasch, Christopher, 193n3
League of Nations, 72, 74, 100–101
Lenin, Vladimir, 79
Lewis, David Levering, 114–115
Lieven, Anatol, 203n6
Lilla, Mark, 151
Lippmann, Walter, 203n6
London Transport bombings, 140, 142
“Long Telegram” (Kennan), 194n5
Lukacs, John, 76, 195n5
lynching, 59–60
Madrid train bombings, 140, 142
“magical irrealism,” 125–126
Maistre, Joseph de, 187–188
Manichean heresy, 27–28
Manifest Destiny
European exploration, 18–19
as expansion, 58–59, 68–69, 155
first use of term, 193n3
reframing of, 10, 71–72
Mao Tse-Tung, 88–89
market rationality, belief in, 21n
Marshall, George C., 168–69
Marx, Karl, 34–35
Marxism, 8, 39–40, 125
Massachusetts Bay Colony, 23n, 29
McCain, John, 12, 136
McChrystal, Stanley, 164
McPherson, James M., 200n5
Mediterranean monotheism, 110–113
military, U.S.
configuration and orientation of, 83–84, 89–91, 154, 162, 189
desegregation in, 60–61, 61n
Evangelicalism and, 63–64
National Defense Strategy statements, 94–99
recruitment in, 84
millenarianism, religious, 27–28, 111–112
millenarian utopianism, 5–6
Miller, Perry, 50
Minogue, Kenneth, xi
Mishra, Pankaj, 146
missionary religion, 21–24
monotheism, 1–2, 110–113
Monroe Doctrine, 44–45, 69, 69n
Montaigne, Michel, 19
Montgomery, Bernard, 77
“moral clarity,” 175–176
Mormons, 29
Muhammad, 110, 113
Muslim Brotherhood, 130–131, 133
Muslims. See Islam
Mussolini, Benito, 9, 36, 197n6
Nabahani, Taqiuddin, 133
Napoleon, 6
Nasser, Gamal Abdel, 128–129, 131–132
National Defense Strategy statements, 94–99
nationalism
American, 13
ethnic conflict after WWI, 73–74
Islamic nationalist movements, 129–132
Italian fascism and, 9
jihadism as, 41
Marxism and, 8
Palestinian, 133
as post-Napoleonic political force, 35–36
Wilson and national self-determination, 73
national myth, 67
national security policy, U.S. See also military, U.S.
exclusion of democratic influences from, 157
National Defense Strategy statements, 94–99
noninterventionist redefinition of, 178–179
Obama, pressures on, 164–65
nation-building, 91–94, 105
NATO expansion, 36n
natural selection, 20
Nazism
as elite rather than universalizing, 36–37
European unification project, 8
failure of, 9
Islamic movements and, 132
neoconservatism
conservatism vs., 11
&nb
sp; European influences on, 174–176
influence on Bush presidency, 173–175
Middle East agenda, 85
misreading of Japanese and German history, 101
Obama and, 176–177
Trotskyism and, 37n
utopian beliefs of, 21n
“neoisolationism,” 177
New England, 51, 52
Newhouse, John, 203n6
New Paganism, 3
New Tide movement (China), 124–125
New World, discovery and image of, 18–19
Niebuhr, Reinhold, 14, 202n6, 204n9
Nitze, Paul, 202n5
Nixon, Richard, 146
Noll, Mark A., 51
noninterventionist policy, 78–81, 177–184
North Korea, 96
nuclear weapons
American preoccupation with, 99
as defensive, 99
Iran and North Korea and, 96
terrorists and, 204n10
U.S. deployment, continued, 171–172
Obama, Barack, and administration
Afghan-Pakistan war and, 85–86, 137, 146, 163–166
election of, 61
and federation of democracies, 12
nation-building and, 94
neoconservatives and, 176–177
reconciliation and cooperation sought by, 187
terrorism and, 15
Olmert, Ehud, 208n12
original sin, 51, 204n9
Ottoman Empire, 115–116, 115n, 120–121
Owen, Robert, 21n
Paganism, Modern, 2, 40
Paine, Thomas, 44
Pakistan. See also Afghan-Pakistan war
India and, 204n10
public opinion in, 166
spread of intervention to, 156
Taliban and, 146–148
Palestinians, 133, 181–182
Pandora, 3
Parker, Theodore, 52
Petraeus, David, 165
Philippines, 70
Plato, 176
Poe, Edgar Allan, 52
pope-emperor structure, 116–117
Popper, Karl, 86
portrait exhibitions, 45–48
power
arbitrary use of, 184
bipolar system and, 78–79
executive, 160, 174–175
hubris and, 4
Kennan on, 194n5
neoconservatism on, 175
power
universalization of, 4
utopianism and desire for, 2–3
predestination doctrine, 23, 28–29
preemption, 161, 173
preventive strategy, 173
private security contractors, 167
progress, notion of, 4, 15
Protestants. See Christianity; Evangelical Protestantism, American
Proudhon, Pierre-Joseph, 21n
“Public and Private Portraits, 1770–1830” exhibition (Guggenheim, NY), 45–47
Pursuit of the Millennium, The (Cohn), 30–31
Qur’an, 117, 117n
Qutb, Sayyid, 131–132
racial oppression, 59–62
radical doubt position, 19–20
radicalism, Islamist. See Islamist extremist or fundamentalist groups
railroad, transcontinental, 58
Rand, Ayn, 21n
rationalism
ideological expansionism and, 13
Romanticism vs., 35
Unitarianism and, 52
as value-free, 170–171
in Western Christianity, 30
Reagan, Ronald, 23, 154
realism, political, 14–15, 177
Red Guards movement (China), 126–127
religion. See also Christianity; Evangelical Protestantism; Islam
Darwinism and, 54
Enlightenment thought and, 18, 20
Judaism, 1, 22
millenarianism, religious, 27–28, 111–112
millenarian substitution for, 5
missionary assumptions and, 21–24
monotheism, 1–2, 110–113
prophecy and doctrine as guiding forces in, 12
theocracy, 23, 29
Transcendentalism, 52–54
upper-class and lower-class Protestants in U.S., 55
utopianism in, 3
“religious right,” 28
Rice, Condoleezza, 7, 72, 91–93, 136
Richmond Dispatch, 200n5
Riedel, Bruce, 146, 166n
romanticism, 9, 35
Roosevelt, Franklin Delano, xii, xiii, 74, 168
Roosevelt, Theodore, 168
Rougemont, Denis de, 187–188
Rumsfeld, Donald, 92, 146
Russia, 97, 105. See also Soviet Union
Ruthven, Malise, 120, 132
Rwanda, 38, 183–184
Ryn, Claes G., 175
Sadat, Anwar el-, 131, 132
Sageman, Marc, 138–141
Saudi Arabia
al Qaeda and, 137–138
Carter and, 153–154
demolition in sacred cities, 128n
U.S. bases in, 41, 90, 154–155
Wahhabism and, 128
Schmitt, Carl, 174–175
Schumpeter, Joseph, 155, 167
science, 20, 171
Scopes “monkey trial,” 200n6
Scotch-Irish, 56–57
secularism and synthetic religion, 12
secularization and utopianism, 2, 3
secular utopianism. See utopianism, secular
self-determination, national, 73
September 11, 2001, attacks, 108–109, 160
Serbia, 38
Sharansky, Natan, 203n9
Shari’a law, 120
Sharon, Ariel, 85
Sherman, William T., 52, 70
slavery, 60
Smith, Joseph, 29
South, U.S.
European influences on, 51–52
religion in, 56
Scotch-Irish population, 56–57
slavery and racial oppression in, 59–62
violence in, 57
Soviet Union
Afghanistan invasion, 153–154, 206n1
Containment policy toward, 14–15, 76, 194n5
Russianization of Leninism, 79
secular utopianism in Communist Party, 38–40
Sino-Soviet split, 203n7
Spanish-American War, 70
Stalin, Josef, 8, 37, 88–89, 203n7
State Department, reconfiguration of, 93
Status of Forces Agreement, 98
Steel, Ronald, 202n6
Stillman, Edmund, 78
Strauss, Leo, 174, 175, 176
Stuart, Gilbert, 46
stupidity, political, 190
Sudan, 124, 182, 183
Taft, Robert A., 75
T’ai P’eng Rebellion, 124
Tajikistan, 134
Taliban, 140–141, 145–148
Tennyson, Alfred, 75
terrorism. See also al Qaeda; Islamist extremist or fundamentalist groups; war on terror
anarchism and, 5
as constructed, 109
Foreign Policy Research Institute survey on, 138–141
as identified enemy, 13–14, 15–16
by Islamist extremist groups, 9n
nuclear weapons and, 204n10
as reaction to Western interference, 40–41
recruits and “training,” 138, 141–142
threats as virtual, 162
theocracy, 23, 29
Thirty Years War, 31–32
Thucydides, 190
Tocqueville, Alexis de, 50
Tolstoy, Leo, 53n
totalitarianism. See also fascism
Arendt on, 193n3
invention of term, 36
violence under, 37–38
Transcendentalism, 52–54
Trotsky, Leon, 37, 37n
Truman, Harry, 60–61
Tucker, Robert W., 170
Turkey, 119, 121. See also Ottoman Empire
Turner, Frederick Jackson, 58
Unitarianism, 52
unitary executive, legal theory of, 174–175
United Nations, 75, 100–101, 182
United States. See also specific administrations, wars, and topics, such as Manifest Destiny or war on terror
“Christian America” notion, 51, 55
“City on the Hill” as founding myth, 23
cultural influences in New England vs. South, 51–52
elections (2006 and 2008), 164–165
empire-ending prospects, 184–190
Enlightenment and, 48–54
Europe, discontinuity with, 45–51
Europe, efforts toward domination of, 8–10
European expatriation, 54–55
French Revolution, denunciation of, 50
isolationist beginnings of, 43–45
military expansionism vs. isolationism, 13
military presence in Middle East, 41
realism, abandonment of, 14–15
shift from isolationism to utopianism, 10
Southern cultural legacy, 55–57
Southern race relations, 59–62
violence in, 57–60
wars, failure to disengage from, 88
“Wild West,” 58–59
universalism, utopian
Enlightenment principles and, 20
Nazism and, 37
“progress” and, 4
Western tradition of, 2–3
utopianism, secular
19th-century liberal confidence, 33–34
capacity for the ruin of societies, 151
democratic expansion and, 11–12
European domination efforts by ideological leaders, 6–10
fascism and totalitarianism and, 36–38
history of utopias, 20–21
idealistic political-action version of, 4–5
Mediterranean monotheisms and, 112
millenarian version of, 5–6
radical Islam and, 41
religious millenarianism vs., 27–28
secularization and, 2, 3
in Soviet Union, 38–40
value-free scientific rationalism and, 170–171
Western tradition of utopian ambition, 2–3
utopianism, theocratic, 29
Uzbekistan, 134
Vietnam
American ideology and policy on, 81–82
blame over, 166n
Cambodia invasion by, 126
direct intervention policy and, 80
lessons of, 105
post-Vietnam hatreds, 186–187
vigilantes, 59–60
violence, international. See war and violence, international
violence, in U.S., 57–60
Wahhabism, 128, 129, 137–138
war and violence, international. See also specific wars and conflicts
within Christianity, 24–25, 31–32
in Cold War, xii–xiii
democracy and ideology of peace, 88
democratic expansionism and, 13–14
Enlightenment and rise of modern violence, 6, 10
foreign intrusion and occupation, resistance to, 122–127
imperialism and, 156–157
limited and instrumental, ended by French Revolution, 32–33
noninterventionist policy alternative, 177–184