by Ober, Josiah
comedy, 158
commercial cases, 117, 246
common knowledge, 15
Common Resolution (Sicily), 184–85
competition: among elites, 175; among experts, 173; and innovation, 103, 117–18, 121, 294; and persistence of Greek efflorescence, 296; and rise and fall of classical Greece, 293–94; specialization and, 12; wealth arising from, 117–19. See also conflict
conflict: in Early Iron Age, 131; in Greek state system, 7, 69–70, 305, 335n12; motivations to avoid, 69–70; in smallstate cultures, 10. See also competition
Conon, 229
consumption, 77, 82–83, 99f
contracts, for overseas trade, 246
cooperation: of Greek states, 37–38, 38t; group size as factor in, 46; individual motivation for, 66–70; in market exchange, 11–14; rational, 117–19; scale as factor in, 46, 67–68; sociopolitical role of, 8. See also decentralized cooperation
Copenhagen Polis Center, 84, 330n10
core Greece: defined, 3, 22; development index, 3f; population of, 22, 22f, 85, 99f
Corinth, 41, 210, 230, 276. See also League of Corinth
Corinthian War, 229–30
Cos, 239
cost-benefit analysis, 200, 203, 211, 216–17, 219, 222, 288
Council of 500 (Athens), 164–67, 234, 250
councilors, 164
courts, Athenian, 168
Crannon, battle at, 300
creative destruction, 12–13, 18, 148, 154, 296
credit, 244
Crete, 73
Critias, 232
Crocus Field, Battle of the, 240, 270
Croesus, King of Lydia, 78–79
cults, 136
culture: Athenian Golden Age, 206; development of, 65–66; expansion of Greek, 240–42; fourth-century, 226. See also civic culture; Hellenization
Cunaxa, battle of, 228, 297
Cyrus II, King of Persia, 227–28, 297
Darius III, King of Persia, 297, 299
Davies, John K., 252, 262, 281
Debord, Pierre, 258–59
decentralized cooperation, 45–70; of animals, 45, 47–49, 47f; in ant behavior, 61–64; Aristotle on, 46–53; centralized vs., 54–57; deviation from, 52–53; and efflorescence of classical Greece, 54, 104; emergence and, 45; in fourth century, 304–6; institutional framework for, 53; normative character of, 50–53; rational choice theory and, 46; theory of, 70
decision making. See cost-benefit analysis; prospect theory; rational choice theory
Delian League, 194–98
Delos, 37, 194
Delphi, 30, 37, 135, 240
demagogues, 186
demes, 162, 163t, 164, 170, 224
Demeter, 144
Demetrius “the Besieger,” 300
democracy: agriculture as factor in emergence of, 333n8; in Athens, 162–66, 197, 208–9, 226, 232–33, 300, 302–3; authority in, 10; in classical Greece, 103, 226, 296; domination vs., xiv, 11, 329n2; economic growth in conjunction with, xiii–xv; efflorescence and, 10, 294; emergence of, 331n23; etymology of, 351n14; exceptional character of, xvii, 103, 294, 296, 315; federalism and, 162, 164; game theory applied to, 310–14, 321–28; governance of, 10; in Greek states, 200, 307; in Hellenistic period, 306–14, 321–28; individuality and, 226; military success of, 325–26; oligarchy vs., 201, 307–8; preference for, xiv; premodern, xiv–xv; as regime type, 40; stability of, 325–26; in Syracuse, 185–88, 252–53
Democritus, 206
Demosthenes, 272–76
development index, of core Greece, 3f, 99f
Diades, 288
diet, 29
difference principle, 349n32
Diodorus of Sicily, 182, 184–88, 253, 255, 257, 290
Diogenes the Cynic, 226
Dion, 254, 283
Dionysia, 158
Dionysius I of Syracuse, 253–54, 263
Dionysius II of Syracuse, 254, 283
Dionysus, 144, 158
diplomacy: in fourth century, 238, 241; Macedonian-Athenian, 272–74; Philip II and, 268, 272, 280, 283; Seleucid, 260. See also foreign policy
direct taxes, 250
domination: defined, xiii; democracy vs., xiv, 11, 329n2; as factor in efflorescence, 108; natural states based on, 10–11; as premodern norm, xiii, 11
Drakon, 148
Dutch republics, small-state culture of, xiv
Early Iron Age (EIA), 73–74, 81, 89, 106, 126–28, 130–31
economic growth: aggregate, 81–84, 98; democracy in conjunction with, xiii–xv; efflorescence and, 2, 204; exchange and, 11–14; measuring, 81–84, 338n14; per capita, 81–84, 98; proxy indicators of, 84t; specialization and, 11–14
economics, of Athenian empire, 203–6; institutional, 5; transaction cost, 250
education: ephebeia, 249, 303, 326; sophists and, 206–7; in Sparta, 141–42
efflorescence of classical Greece: comparisons to, 71–80, 98–100; cooperation underpinning, 47, 54, 104; democracy and, 10, 294; democratic Athens as factor in, 170–75; economic development and, 3–4, 3f, 204; endogeneity problem in explaining, 109; environmental conditions for, 28; exceptional character of, 3–4, 16–18; exogenous factors insufficient to explain, 13–14, 104–9; explanation of, 13–14, 16–18, 103–4, 107, 120–22, 293–94; in fourth century, 240–60; health and, 88–89; measuring, 70–100; natural resources and, 44; Peloponnesian influence on, 232; persistence of, 19, 121–22, 295–97, 306, 309, 314–15; political regimes and, 40; population during, 74, 81–82; post-Athenian, 222; premises about, 80; threats to, 212; urbanization and, 102; value of studying, 294
efflorescences: defined, 2, 330n3; minor Greek, 329n2; schema of, 105f
Egypt, 55, 227, 281, 301, 302, 304
EIA. See Early Iron Age
eisphora (levies on large properties), 244, 250
Eleusis, 69, 144, 205
Eleutheria, festival at Syracuse, 183
Elis, 162
elites: in Athens, 197, 235–36; in city-states, 154; and emergence of city-states, 128–32; game theory applied to, 310–14, 321–28; in Hellenistic world, 310–14, 321–28; Hellenization of, 241; incentives of, in Athens, 174–75; interests of the masses in relation to, 235–36, 308; and oligarchy, 201; public speaking and politics of, 235–36; in Sicily, 177; in Syracuse, 186
emergence, defined, 45; in rise and fall of Sicily, 257–58; of wealth, 104
empire: defined, 334n21; as form of natural state, 11; golden age of, 191–222; Macedonia and, 261, 266, 279–88; rational acquiescence to, 201–2, 216–17, 222, 259, 288; Sparta and, 227–32; Syracuse and, 56, 176, 218, 254. See also Athenian empire; Persian Empire; Rome and Roman Empire
endogeneity, problem of, 107–8, 109
England and Wales: living conditions in, 88; population of, 22, 85; urbanization rate in, 87; wealth and income distribution in, 90
Epaminondas, 230, 237, 239, 263
ephebeia (military training of youth), 249, 303, 326
epicracies, Sicilian, 176
epigraphic habit, 303
equality: in Athens, 150–51, 214–15; in classical Greece, 154; in Greek states, 111; of public speech, 167; in Sparta, 140–41, 349n32
Eretria, 133, 168, 179, 224
Erythrai, 259
escalation dominance, 194
Eteokarpathians, 202
Etruscans, 8, 55, 181, 241
Euboea, 162, 179, 239
Euboean League, 273
eudaimonia, 50–51 312
Eukles, 251
Eukrates, 303
Eumenes, 282
Euripides, 206, 267; Ion, 199
Evagoras, 229, 262
exchange, economic growth dependent on, 11–14
expected utility maximization, 46, 59, 67, 112, 321, 326
expertise: in fourth century, 225–26; military, 206, 248–49, 285–88; opportunists’ use of Greek, 18–19, 263–64; Philip II’s use of Greek, 281–88, 290–91; political, 250–51; in public speaking and politics, 171–74, 234–36; sophis
ts’ claims to, 207; state performance and, 248–52
exploitation, as factor in efflorescence, 108
extended Greek world, 22; Anatolia’s role in, 259; context of, xxviiim; extent of, 6–7; population of, 3, 22, 22f, 85; regions of, xxvim, xxvii, 317, 318–21t
factionalism, 53, 161
fair rules. See rule egalitarianism
federalism: and Athenian state performance, 170–71; democratic, 162, 164, 170–71; and scale problem, 68; spread of, 242
federal leagues (koina), 37, 119, 224–25, 242–43, 261, 277, 308
finance: expertise in, 249–50, 283; organization of, 250; Philip II of Macedon and, 283–84
fish, collective behavior of, 45, 61
Fleck, Rob, 154
flocks of birds, 45, 61
Florence, 90
flourishing. See eudaimonia
food, 29. See also barley; grain; olives and olive oil; wheat
Ford, Henry, 14
foreign policy, 226. See also diplomacy
Forsdyke, Sara, 6, 353n38
fortifications, 42–43, 42f, 43t, 226, 306, 309–10, 311–12, 325–26
founder-heroes, 41
France, urbanization rate in, 87
free riding, 46, 59, 67–68, 141, 196
Friesen, Steven, 91, 93–94, 96, 98
game theory, xviii, 310–14, 321–28
Gamoroi, 178–79
Gela, 178–79, 184
Gelon, 178–82
genetic makeup, of populations, 6, 61, 63, 65, 66–67
geography, 22–24; and emergence of city-states, 128–29; exchange linked to, 13–14; and social ecology, 104, 106–7; specialization linked to, 13–14
Gini coefficient of inequality, 90, 91, 341n45
gold, 270–71
Goldstone, Jack, 2–3, 294, 330n3
Gordon, Deborah, 61, 63
governance: amateurism in, 251; amateur role in, 17–18; of Athenian empire, 199, 206; of Athens, 250–52; of democracy, 10; of Macedonia, 267–68; of Persian Empire, 199; specialization in, 17
grain: climatic conditions for, 27, 152; colonies’ production of, 135; fourth-century markets for, 241; in Greek diet, 29; shortage of, in 330s, 304; Sicilian production of, 188–89, 255–56
grain price stabilization, 115
Granicus River, battle of, 297
grapes, for wine production, 27, 29
Greece. See classical Greece; core Greece; extended Greek world
Greek Dark Age. See Early Iron Age
Greeks: arrival of, in mainland Greece, 333n9; defined, 4; similarities among, 31; theorists and intellectuals among, 206–12. See also citizens and citizenship
Greek states: agriculture of, 25, 27; ant analogy for, 21, 26, 55, 57, 61–66; architecture and planning of, 29; authority over, 7–11; citizenship in, 153–55, 200; climate of, 13–14, 24–28; colonization as source of new, 41; competitors of, 27–28; conflicts between, 7, 69–70, 305, 335n12; cooperation among, 37–38, 38t (see also decentralized cooperation); data on, 4–5; defined, 7; degree of cultural homogeneity in, 38–39, 39t; democracy in, 200, 307; differences among, 33–44; ecology of, 21–28; elevations of, 24, 25f; emergence of, 128–32; equality in, 111; in fourth century, 223–60, 225m; geography of, 13–14, 22–24; in Hellenistic period, 295–96, 301, 303; independence of, 37–39, 38t, 107–8, 295–96; influence and prominence (fame) of, 7, 33–37, 35t, 36f; land area and geography of, 22–26, 32t; local histories of, 39–41; Macedon compared to, 279–82, 288; mainland and Aegean, in fourth century, 237–40; natural resources of, 43–44; nature of, 39; non-Greeks among, 41–42; overview of, 6–11; Persian threat to, 191–92; physical characteristics of, 7; political regimes of, 40; population distribution in, 87t; proximity of, to sea, 23; in Roman Empire, 315; settlement history of, 26; similarities among, 28–31; size of, 7, 32t, 33, 34f, 37, 87t; specialization in, 11–14; threats to, 159; walled, 42–43, 42f, 226, 306, 309–10. See also classical Greece
Grote, George, 1–2
Gylippos, 220, 255
Hale, John R., 348n25
Halicarnassus, 298
Halonessos, 272
Hanseatic League, 7
Hansen, Mogens H., 4, 81, 84–87
Hanssen, Andrew, 154
Harmodius, 159
Harris, Edward, 102
health, 88–89
hegemony, 334n21
Hellenistic world, 261; adaptation of Greek knowledge in, 281; cultural production of, 295; democracy in, 306–14, 321–28; economy of, 302; efflorescence of, 306, 309, 314–15; elites in, 310–14, 321–28; emulation, convergence, and cooperation in, 302–6; game theory applied to, 310–14, 321–28; Greek knowledge base for, 19; political conditions of, 295–96, 300–302, 309–14, 321–28
Hellenization: of Anatolia, 224, 259; defined, 330n5; degree of, 39t; and fall of classical Greece, 18–19; in fourth century, 240–42, 259; of Macedonia, 267; opportunists and, 262–64; in Persian Empire, 238; role of language in, 29; in Roman Empire, 295, 296; of Sicily, 224
helots, Spartan, 139, 140–43, 155, 197, 348n29, 349n30
Herakles, 137, 144, 267
Hermias of Atarneus, 262, 282
Hermocrates, 252–53
Herodotus, 206; on Athenian freedom, 112, 166–67; on Cleisthenes, 160–61; on common Greek culture, 30; on Hipparchus’ assassination, 159; historical sources used by, 40; on Persian defense plan, 192; on Persian invasion, 173, 180–81; and Solon’s story about Tellus, 78–79, 136; and the sophists, 207; on state performance, 290; on status of Athens, 146; on wealth of Greece, 76–79
Hero of Lefkandi, 127
Hesiod, 12, 136–37
the Hidden, at Sparta, 139, 141
Hieron, 179, 181–83
Himera, 180–81, 184
Hipparchus, 159
Hippias, 159–60, 168
Hippocrates (physician), 206
Hippocrates (tyrant), 178, 207
Hippocratic medical writers, 207, 213
historicism, xvii
historiography: of Greek states, 39–41; middle-range, xvii–xviii
Hobbes, Thomas, 8–10, 58–60, 66, 126, 290–91, 301
Holland: aggregate growth in, 83; economy of, 80; living conditions in, 88; population of, 22, 85; urbanization rate in, 87; wages in, 95, 303; wheat wages in, 96t
homeownership, 90
Homer, 30
hoplite panoply, 130, 136
hoplites: Athenian, 166, 168, 214–15; defined, 136; equipment of, 130, 136, 286; Macedonian, 269, 286; significance of, 347n15; Spartan, 124, 138–39, 231
houses, 29, 82, 89
hubris, 150
human capital, and economic growth, 16–17, 103, 110–15, 252, 262
Hume, David, 50
Ictinus, 206
ideas, open access to, 247
ideology: of Athenian empire, 199–200; as motivation for cooperation, 67–68; of Persian Empire, 199; of Sparta, 231
Ikaria, 144
Illyrians, 268
Imbros, 229, 230
income: distribution of, 89–98; per diem, 94t; tiers of, 93–94, 95–98
indirect taxes, 244–45
individuality, 226
inequality, measures of, 89–93; reduced by transfer payments at Athens, 252
infantry. See hoplites
information exchange: in ant behavior, 61, 63–64; cumulative, 65–66; in theory of collective action, 70; transaction costs and, 116–17
innovation, 12–13; in Athenian empire, 206; economic growth arising from, 117; human species development and, 65–66; institutional, 117–19, 232–36. See also competition; technological innovations
institutional economics, 5, 330n11, 343n1
institutions: access to, 243–48, 285; in Athens, 232–36, 243–47, 303–4; civic culture in relation to, 236; and economic exceptionalism, 101–2; incentives for cooperation from, 118; innovations in, 117–19, 232–36; mechanisms for coordination from, 118; post-classical emulation of Athenian, 303–4; relevant to transaction cos
ts, 116
insurance, against risk, 114–15, 252. See also public insurance
Inventory of Archaic and Classical Greek Poleis, xxvim, xxvii, 4–5, 33, 34, 36, 38–39, 224, 241, 266, 302, 307, 317, 330n10, 334n19
Inventory of Greek Coin Hoards, 83
investment, 103, 111–15
Ion, 199
Ionian Greeks, 194, 199–200
Ipsus, battle of, 300
iron technology, 129–30
Isagoras, 160–62
Isakhan, Benjamin, 329n2
Isocrates, 223, 247, 258, 283
Isthmia, 30
Isthmus of Corinth, 192
Italy, 12, 254. See also Renaissance Italy
Jason (dynast), 238–39, 262, 263, 268
justice, 52, 151; and fair rules, 104
Justin (historian), 276
Kahneman, Daniel, 217, 219
Karpathos, 202
Karystos, 195–96
Keane, John, 329n2
Kerameikos cemetery, Athens, 146
Killyrians, 178–79, 180
King, City, and Elite Game, 310–14, 321–28
King’s Peace (treaty), 230, 238
Knidos, battle at, 229
knowledge: adaptation of Greek, by non-Greek neighbors, 18–19, 281–88, 290–91; distribution of civic, 164–65; industrial-era specialization and, 14–15
knowledge-based enterprises, 15–16
koina. See federal leagues
Koresia, 7
Krenides, 270
Kron, Geoffrey, 90–91
Kylon, 148, 160
Kyme, 259
Kyrene, 304
labor markets, transaction costs in, 97
Laconia, 230
Lamian War, 236, 299–300
landholding, and Athenian inequality, 91
language, 29, 137
Late Bronze Age, 72–73
law: in Athens, 148, 158, 233; development of, from social norms, 131; extent of applicability of, 243–44; process of creating, 233; publication of, 303
League of Corinth, 276–78, 298, 299, 302, 306
learning: collective social action and, 65–66; investment in, 111–13
legacy system, 130
Lelantine Plain, 133; War of, 168
Lembros, 229, 230
Leontini, 218
Leosthenes, 299
Lesbos, 33
Leuctra, battle of, 231–32
