Out of Eden: The Peopling of the World

by Oppenheimer, Stephen

  19. Nasreen types originating in the south: B and F (B* found among Aboriginal Malays), R9 (found in Yunnan (South China) and Xinjiang from a branch ancestral to F), pre-F (common among Aboriginal Malays and ancestral to both R9 and to F), pre-N, N*, and N9, all found in Aboriginal Malays (N9, found throughout Southeast Asia and in South China, is ancestral to Y;) – see Chapter 5; R21 (found only among the Semang and Senoi from a Rohani branch, but may be ancestral to pre-F, F4, and F – shares HVS1 site 16304, but not certain key non-coding sites –thus providing a possible deep anchor between the Aboriginal Malays and other aboriginal groups of the Malay Peninsula) – see Chapter 4. Manju types originating in the South: M7 – see Chapter 5. Y-chromosome types originating in the South: Ho (Consensus type ‘O’) – see Chapter 5.

  20. Rayner, D. and Bulbeck, D. (2001) ‘Dental morphology of the “Orang Asli” aborigines of the Malay Peninsula’ in M. Henneberg (ed.) Causes and Effects of Human Variation (Australasian Society for Human Biology, University of Adelaide) pp. 19–41.

  21. Oppenheimer op. cit.

  22. Richards, M. et al. (1998) ‘MtDNA suggests Polynesian origins in Eastern Indonesia’ American Journal of Human Genetics 63: 1234–6; Oppenheimer, S.J. and Richards, M. (2001a) ‘Polynesian origins: Slow boat to Melanesia?’ Nature 410: 166–7; Oppenheimer, S.J. and Richards, M. (2001b) ‘Fast trains, slow boats, and the ancestry of the Polynesian islanders’ Science Progress 84(3): 157–81.

  23. Cambridge geneticist, Peter Forster: Table 2 Forster et al., op. cit. Similar post-glacial dates for intrusive Y: M119 in Table 5 in Kayser, M. et al. (2001) ‘Independent histories of human Y chromosomes from Melanesia and Australia’ American Journal of Human Genetics 68: 173–90; M122 in Table 2 in Kayser, M. et al. (2000) ‘Melanesian origin of Polynesian Y chromosomes’ Current Biology 10: 1237–46.

  24. Data from Torroni, A. et al. (1994) ‘Mitochondrial DNA analysis in Tibet: Implications for the origins of the Tibetan population and its adaptaton to high altitude’ American Journal of Physical Anthropology 93: 189–99 (note, the new clade M7 is identified in this older dataset by RFLP site 9820g). The presence of southern paternal line (M95) and the two dominant southern maternal clans B and F in Indo-China and Island Southeast Asia may simply indicate that they had been there all along among Sundadont populations (see Chapter 5), but their presence in Melanesia clearly indicates migration. The finding of maternal group C in the south (by e.g. Yong-Gang Yao et al., op. cit.), however, implies migration from the north.

  25. Hill, C. et al. (2003) ‘Mitochondrial DNA variation in the Orang Asli of the Malay Peninsula’ (in preparation).

  26. Consensus line O/Ho = M175: spread of this genetic line in Southeast Asia and intrusion across the Wallace Line reviewed in Oppenheimer and Richards (2001b) op. cit.; data from Kayser et al. (2001) op. cit.; Capelli, C. et al. (2001) ‘A predominantly indigenous paternal heritage for the Austronesian-speaking peoples of insular Southeast Asia and Oceania’ American Journal of Human Genetics 68: 432–43; Bing Su et al. (1999) ‘Y-chromosome evidence for a northward migration of modern humans into Eastern Asia during the last Ice Age’ American Journal of Human Genetics 65: 1718–24. See also The Y Chromosome Consortium (2002) op. cit.

  27. Mongoloid remains . . . in Java . . . dated to 7,000 years: Widianto, H. and Detroit, F. (2001) ‘The prehistoric burial customs in Indonesia during early Holocene: Nature and age’ abstract, Symposium 16.1, 16th Congress of the Union Internationale des Sciences Préhistoriques et Protohistoriques, 2–8 September, Liège. From the LGM up until about 10,000 years ago: Oppenheimer op. cit. pp. 78–83. People of New Guinea . . . morphologically similar to the Negritos: Bulbeck, D. (1999) ‘Current biological research on Southeast Asia’s Negritos’ SPAFA Journal 9(2): 14–22; Rayner, D. and Bulbeck, D. (2001) ‘Dental morphology of the “Orang Asli” aborigines of the Malay Peninsula’ in M. Henneberg (ed.) Causes and Effects of Human Variation (Australasian Society for Human Biology, University of Adelaide) pp. 19–41; see also Chapter 5.

  28. [Niah ‘deep skull’] Carbon-dated to around 42,000 years ago: Barker, G. et al. (2001) ‘The Niah Cave Project: The second (2001) season of fieldwork’ Sarawak Museum Journal 56: 37–119, here pp. 56–8. like the now extinct Tasmanians: See note 15 in Chapter 5. a partial skull from Tabon Cave: Bulbeck, F.D. (1981) ‘Continuities in Southeast Asian evolution since the Late Pleistocene’, MA thesis, Department of Prehistory and Anthropology, Australian National University, Canberra.

  29. For more than a century arguments . . . Proto-Australian: Dubois, E. (1922) ‘The proto-Australian fossil man of Wadjak, Java’ Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen te Amsterdam B 23: 1013–51; Weidenreich, F. (1945) ‘The Keilor skull: A Wadjak type from south-east Australia’ American Journal of Physical Anthropology 3: 225–36; Wolpoff, M.H. et al. (1984) ‘Modern Homo sapiens origins: A general theory of hominid evolution involving the fossil evidence from east Asia’ in F.H. Smith and F. Spencer (eds) The Origins of Modern Humans (Alan R. Liss, New York) pp. 411–84. The skulls have been claimed to be early Mongoloid: Coon, C.S. (1962) The Origin of Races (Alfred A. Knopf, New York); Jacob, J.T. (1967) Some Problems Pertaining to the Racial History of the Indonesian Region (Drukkerij Neerlandia, Utrecht) pp. i–xiv, 1–162; Bulbeck, D. (1981) op. cit. modern (Mongoloid) Javanese: Storm, P. (1995) ‘The evolutionary significance of the Wajak skulls’ Scripta Geologica 110: 1–247. like the Ainu: Bulbeck, D. (2002) ‘South Sulawesi in the corridor of island populations along East Asia’s Pacific Rim’ in S. Keates and J. Pasveer (eds) Quaternary Research in Indonesia, Modern Quaternary Research in Southeast Asia, Vol. 17 (Balkema, Rotterdam). either 10,560 or 6,560 years old: Storm op. cit.; Shutler, R. et al. (2002) ‘AMS bone apatite C14 dates from Wajak, Indonesia’ in Keates and Pasveer op. cit. Bulbeck also makes a similar Jomon connection for the cranial and dental morphology of pre-ceramic (before they made pots) Toaleans in Sulawesi.

  30. There may not be a single date at all . . . gradual local evolutionary process: Storm op. cit. their original name, ‘Proto-Malays’: Glinka, J. (1981) ‘Racial history of Indonesia’ in I. Schwidetsky (ed.) Rassengeschichte der Menschheit, Vol. 8, Asien I: Japan, Indonesien, Ozeanien (Oldenbourg, Munich) pp. 79–113.

  31. Forster et al., op. cit.

  32. the ice-age Japanese Minatogawa 1 skull: Brown op. cit. the modern Ainu: Hanihara, T. et al. (1998) ‘Place of the Hokkaido Ainu (Northern Japan) among peoples of the world’ International Journal of Circumpolar Health 57: 257–75.

  33. In Okinawa, . . . the rare Asian YAP+ marker achieves frequencies of 55%: Hammer, M.F. and Horai, S. (1995) ‘Y chromosomal DNA variation and the peopling of Japan’ American Journal of Human Genetics 56: 951–62. The other beachcombing Y marker [Cain]: Consensus group C/Cain = RPS4Y, Karafet,T.M. et al. (1999) ‘Ancestral Asian source(s) of New World Y-chromosome founder haplotypes’ American Journal of Human Genetics 64: 817–31; Bing Su et al., op. cit. C corresponds to the consensus nomenclature for this haplogroup, The Y Chromosome Consortium op. cit.

  34. Brown op. cit. See also Cunningham, D.L. and Wescott, D.J. (2002) ‘Within-group human variation in the Asian Pleistocene: The three Upper Cave crania’ Journal of Human Evolution 42: 627–38; Wu, X. and Poirier, F.E. (1995) Human Evolution in China (Oxford University Press, New York) pp. 158–70.

  35. Karafet et al., op. cit.; Ke, Y. et al. (2001) ‘African origin of modern humans in East Asia: A tale of 12,000 Y chromosomes’ Science 292: 1151–2.

  36. The ‘backward’ epithet is probably a Eurocentric slur, since the available stone was poor and the most pliant materials used by Southeast Asians for their tools were of perishable wood, fibre, and bamboo. See the discussion in Chapter 4 and in Shutler, R. Jr (1995) ‘Hominid cultural evolution as seen from the archaeological evidence in Southeast Asia’, Conference papers on Archaeology in Southeast Asia, Publ. Hong Kong University Museum, Hong Kong, 1995.; Pope, G.G. (1989) ‘Bamboo and human evolution’ Natural History (October) pp. 49–56.

  37. What b
ecame known as the Movius Line: Movius, H.L. (1948) ‘The Lower Palaeolithic cultures of southern and eastern Asia’ Transactions of the American Philosophical Society (new series) 38: 329–420. at least a million years ago: Pope, G.G. and Keates, S.G. (1994) ‘The evolution of human cognition and cultural capacity: A view from the Far East’ in R. Corrucin and R.L. Ciochon (eds) Integrative Paths to the Past: Paleoanthropological Advances (Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ) pp. 531–67. around 70,000 years ago: Shutler op. cit.; see also Bowdler, S. (1992) ‘The earliest Australian stone tools and implications for Southeast Asia’ Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association Bulletin 12: 10–22; Keates, S.G. and Bartstra, G.-J. (2001) ‘Observations on Cabengian and Pacitanian artefacts from Island Southeast Asia’ Quärtar, Band 51/52: 9–32; Pope and Keates op. cit.

  38. It has been surmised: Shutler op. cit.; Pope op. cit. bamboo: ibid.

  39. Chen and Olsen op. cit.

  40. Ibid.

  41. Ibid.

  42. Kuzmin, Y.V. et al. (1998) ‘14C chronology of Stone Age cultures in the Russian Far East’ Radiocarbon 40(1/2): 675–86.

  43. This paragraph draws on Reynolds, T.E.G. and Kaner, S.C. (1990) ‘Japan and Korea at 18,000 bp’ in C. Gamble and O. Soffer (eds) The World at 18,000 bp, Vol. 1 (Unwin Hyman, London) pp. 276–95.

  44. The regions around the Yangtzi Kiang: at Tonglian – Chen and Olsen op. cit. the coastal regions of southern China: The preglacial southern Thai sites of Moh Khiew and Lang Rongrien, however, are reported to show a high percentage of utilized flake tools – F.D. Bulbeck (2003) ‘Hunter-gatherer occupation of the Malay Peninsula from the Ice Age to the Iron Age’ in J. Mercader (ed.) The Archaeology of Tropical Rain Forests (Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick) pp. 119–60, here p. 129.

  45. gap in occupation (of SE Asia and the Malay Peninsula at LGM): ibid. the former continent of Sundaland: Oppenheimer op. cit. They thus simply followed the sea: Bulbeck op. cit., but see also Bellwood op. cit. pp. 159–61.

  46. inland caves were reoccupied: for re-occupations in: Malaysia, lowland Gua Sagu from 14,400 years ago; Lenggong Valley from 13,600 years ago (Gua Runtuh) – Fig. 1 in Majid, Z. (1998) ‘Radiocarbon dates and culture sequence in the Lenggong Valley and beyond’ Malaysia Museums Journal 34: 241–9. In Indo-China, Son Vi from 9,000 to 12,000 years ago, Hoabinhian from 7,000 to 11,000 years ago, Bacsonian from 7,000 to 10,000 years ago – Fig.2.3 in Higham, C. (1991) The Archaeology of Mainland Southeast Asia (Cambridge University Press). the old lithic traditions continued: Majid op. cit. moved back from lower altitudes: Bulbeck op. cit.

  47. ancestors of the nomadic Negrito forest hunter-gatherers: e.g. Bellwood (op. cit. p. 85) argues that the Semang are descended from the earliest inhabitants of Gua Cha Cave, in the centre of the Malay Peninsula. But dentally the Gua Cha inhabitants both pre- and post- Neolithic look more similar to Pacific Rim peoples or Aboriginal Malays than Semang: see table 5 in Bulbeck D. (2000) ‘Dental Morphology at Gua Cha, West Malaysia, and the Implications for Sundadonty’ Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association Bulletin 19 (Vol 3): 17–41. Zuraina Majid argues further: Majid op. cit.

  48. colonization of the Philippines: but excluding the island of Palawan, which was connected to the Sunda Shelf and was colonized much earlier – Thiel, B. (1987) ‘Early settlement of the Philippines, Eastern Indonesia and Australia-New Guinea: A new hypothesis’ Current Anthropology 28: 236–41. Solheim: a late Pleistocene intrusion: Solheim, W.G. II (1994) ‘Southeast Asia and Korea from the beginnings of food production to the first states’ in S.J. De Laet (ed.) The History of Humanity (Routledge, London) pp. 468–81, here p. 476.

  49. the shores of the extinct Lake Tingkayu: Bellwood op. cit. pp. 175–9. ‘unique in the whole of Southeast Asia . . .’: ibid. p. 179. the two other preglacial sites: ibid. p. 160. For each site there is ambiguity over the dates, but they are late Upper Pleistocene.

  50. Ibid. p. 179.

  Chapter 7

  1. Thomas Jefferson: Jefferson, T. (1955) ‘Query XI: A description of the Indians established in that State?’ in Notes on the State of Virginia (ed. William Peden) (University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, NC). Jesuit scientist and traveller: José de Acosta (1590) Historia Natural y Moral de las Indias (Seville).

  2. Thomas, D.H. (1999) ‘One archaeologist’s perspective on the Monte Verde controversy’ in ‘Monte Verde under fire’ Archaeology Online Features, 18 October 1999 (www.archaeology. org).

  3. the so-called Clovis orthodoxy: Rose, M. (1999) ‘The importance of Monte Verde’ in ‘Monte Verde under fire’ Archaeology Online Features, 18 October 1999 (www.archaeology.org). mantle of authority for this gatekeeper role: ibid. Hrdlicka was singled out: Deloria, V. Jr (1995) Red Earth, White Lies: Native Americans and the Myth of Scientific Fact (Scribner’s, New York).

  4. For a longer review of the discoveries mentioned in this paragraph, see Rose, op. cit.

  5. American geochronologist C. Vance Haynes: Haynes, C.V. (1964) ‘Fluted projectile points: Their age and dispersion’ Science 145: 1404–13; see also Haynes, C.V. (1969) ‘The earliest Americans’ Science 166: 709–15. dates of various Clovis-point sites: these are uncalibrated radiocarbon dates; the calibrated or corrected date bracket would be around 2,000 years older i.e. 13,000 years ago. age was significant for geologists: Marshall, E. (2001) ‘Pre-Clovis sites fight for acceptance’ Science 291: 1730–32; Rutter. N.W. (1980) ‘Late Pleistocene history of the Western Canadian ice-free corridor’ Canadian Journal of Anthropology 1: 1–8.

  6. eighteen contender sites: Frison, G.C. and Walker, D.N. (1990) ‘New World palaeoecology at the Last Glacial Maximum and the implications for New World prehistory’ in C. Gamble and O. Soffer (eds) The World at 18,000 bp, Vol. 1 (Unwin Hyman, London) pp. 312–30, here pp. 313–15. Only a few have survived: the still-embattled sites include Pedra Furada in north-east Brazil, which has a claimed antiquity of 35,000 years, and Taima Taima in Venezuela, at 15,350 years.

  7. Dillehay, T. (1997) Monte Verde, A Late Pleistocene Settlement in Chile. Vol. 2, The Archaeological Context and Interpretation (Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC).

  8. Marshall op. cit.

  9. The group’s consensus report: Meltzer, D. et al. (1997) ‘On the Pleistocene antiquity of Monte Verde, southern Chile’ American Antiquity 62: 659–63. A further article: Taylor, R.E. et al. (1999) ‘Radiocarbon analyses of modern organics at Monte Verde, Chile: No evidence for a local reservoir effect’ American Antiquity 64: 455–60. Note that contamination can occur as a result of coal (fossil carbon) or older peat leaching into younger sources of carbon.

  10. Fiedel, S. (1999) ‘Monte Verde revisited: Artifact provenence at Monte Verde: Confusion and contradictions’ in Special Report ‘Monte Verde revisited’ Scientific American Discovering Archaeology 6(November/December): 1–12.

  11. Adovasio, J.M. (1999) ‘Paradigm-death and gunfights’ in Special Report ‘Monte Verde revisited’ Scientific American Discovering Archaeology 6(November/December): 20.

  12. Meltzer, D.J. (1999) ‘On Monte Verde’ in Special Report ‘Monte Verde revisited’ Scientific American Discovering Archaeology 6(November/December): 16–17.

  13. Collins, M.B. (1999) ‘The site of Monte Verde’ in ‘Monte Verde under fire’ Archaeology Online Features 18 October (www.archaeology.org).

  14. Thomas, D.H. (1999) ‘One archaeologist’s perspective on the Monte Verde controversy’ in ‘Monte Verde under fire’ Archaeology Online Features 18 October (www.archaeology.org).

  15. 16,175 years bp corrected ± 975; deepest layer with (disputed) Paleoindian association 21,070 years BP corrected ± 475: Adovasio, J.M. et al. (1990) ‘The Meadowcroft Rockshelter radiocarbon chronology 1975–1990’ American Antiquity 55: 348–54. Reviewed in Marshall op. cit.

  16. Adovasio is reported, ‘I will never run another date . . .’: reported in Marshall op. cit.

  17. McAvoy, J.M. and McAvoy, L.D. (1997) ‘Archaeological investigations of Site 44SX202, Cactus Hill, Sussex County, Virginia’ V
irginia Department of Historic Resources, Richmond, Research Report Series No. 8. See also Rose, M. (2000). ‘Cactus Hill update’ Archaeology (April 10), available at http://www.archaeology.org/online/news/cactus.html

  18. Reviewed in Marshall op. cit.

  19. Goodyear, A.C. (2001) ‘The stratigraphy story at the Topper site’ Mammoth Trumpet (Center for the Study of the First Americans, Department of Anthropology, Texas A&M University) 16(4); also reviewed in Marshall op. cit.

  20. Marshall op. cit.; see also D.K. (1999) ‘Breaking the “Clovis barrier”: Were the first Americans in South Carolina?’ Scientific American Discovering Archaeology September/October.

  21. Rose, M. (1999) ‘Monte Verde fallout: Beyond Monte Verde’ in ‘Monte Verde under fire’ Archaeology Online Features 18 October (www. archaeology.org).

  22. Rose, M. (1999) ‘Beyond Clovis: How and When the First Americans Arrived’ Archaeology 52(November/December): (book review of Dixon, E.J. (1999) Bones, Boats, and Bison: Archeology and First Colonization of Western North America (University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque), which argues for a west-coast route).

  23. Wallace, A.F.C. (1999) Jefferson and the Indians: The Tragic Fate of the First Americans (Belknap Press, Cambridge, MA).

  24. Polynesians’ spread through the empty islands: Oppenheimer, S.J. and Richards, M. (2001) ‘Fast trains, slow boats, and the ancestry of the Polynesian islanders’ Science Progress 84(3): 157–81. genetic picture fits the linguistic trail very well: ibid., but this does not work farther west from Polynesia, where the migration history is more complex – see ibid.

  25. Trask, R.L. (1996) Historical Linguistics (Arnold, London) p. 377.