Divided we Fail
Page 26
16. W. E. B. Du Bois, The Souls of Black Folk (New York: Barnes and Nobles Classics, 2005), 9.
17. Douglas Massey and Susan Denton, American Apartheid: Segregation and the Making of the Underclass (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993), 4, 59.
18. Anti-Discrimination Center, Dynamic Census Mapping, http://www.antibiaslaw.com/.
19. Massey and Denton, American Apartheid, 60–82.
20. Linda Stahl, “Private Schools Are Losing Students; Reasons Include New Faith in Public Schools,” Louisville Courier-Journal, August 25, 1985.
21. “Changes in Racial Attitudes in Jefferson County,” Louisville Times, May 12, 1980.
22. Photo caption, Louisville Times, May 16, 1980.
23. Linda Raymond, “Test-Score Trends: Blacks Gain, Whites Hold Steady,” Louisville Times, May 13, 1980.
24. Frank Knorr, ed., “Fulfilling the Letter and Spirit of the Law: Desegregation of the Nation’s Public Schools” (Washington, DC: US Commission on Civil Rights August 1976), 83, 161, http://www.eric.ed.gov/.
Chapter 13
1. Elinor J. Brecher and Leslie Ellis, “Grayson Plans Counterattack in Bid to Keep Job,” Louisville Courier-Journal, July 24, 1980; “Grayson Sues Board, Alleging Conspiracy, Attempted Bribery,” Louisville Times, July 24, 1980.
2. “Chronology of the Grayson Controversy,” Louisville-Times, July 25, 1980.
3. Elinor J. Brecher, “School Officials Considering Busing of Whites in More Grades,” Louisville Courier-Journal, November 14, 1979.
4. Elinor J. Brecher, “Board Approves Voluntary Busing Plan amid Criticism,” Louisville Courier-Journal, November 27, 1979.
5. “Six Men Who Would Be Superintendent Tell Why—And How,” Louisville Courier-Journal, January 19, 1981.
6. “ ‘Low-Income Pupils Threaten Education of Others,’ Gamboa Says,” Louisville Courier-Journal, January 23, 1981.
7. “Gamboa Rapped for Linking Poverty, Pupil Attitudes,” Louisville Times, January 23, 1981; “Black Leaders Want Gamboa, DeRuzzo Out,” Louisville Courier-Journal, January 27, 1981.
8. “Californian Ingwerson Is Persuasive and Poised,” Louisville Courier-Journal, February 24, 1981.
9. Details of Donald Ingwerson’s life from author interview with Ingwerson, February 11, 2010; “Californian Ingwerson”; “Job Pressures May Have Led to Departure,” Louisville Courier-Journal, March 5, 1993.
10. Kristina Steward Ward, “The Outsider,” Vogue, December 2007; multiple articles in the Orange County Register, e.g., “Yorba Linda Rejects for Buddhist Temple,” Orange County Register, March 6, 1997.
11. Rosalva Hernandez, “Ruling on Census Raises Few Eyebrows in County,” Orange County Register, March 21, 1996.
12. Daniel Rubin and Leslie Scanlon, “Both Races Show Gains on Test, but an Analysis Shows an Achievement Gap,” Louisville Courier-Journal, August 25, 1985.
13. Daniel Rubin, “Turmoil of Early Years Is Over, but Suspensions Are Still Causing Concern,” Louisville Courier-Journal, August 25, 1985.
14. Daniel Rubin, “Both Blacks and Whites Are Missing Fewer Classes and Dropping Out Less Often,” Louisville Courier-Journal, August 25, 1985.
15. Dianne Aprile, “Troubled Waters Calm Now at Fairdale and Shawnee,” Louisville Times, May 14, 1980.
16. Rubin, “Turmoil of Early Years.”
17. Linda Stahl, “Integration Order Changed to Aid ‘Advance’ Pupils,” Louisville Courier-Journal, August 16, 1975; Leslie Scanlon and Daniel Rubin, “Systemwide Race Ratios Aren’t Holding Up in Special Programs and Tough Courses Like Physics,” Louisville Courier-Journal, August 25, 1985.
18. Jeannie Oakes, Keeping Track: How Schools Structure Inequality (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2005), 278; “The History of Gifted and Talented Education,” National Association of Gifted Children, http://www.nagc.org/; Stephen J. Caldas and Carl L. Bankston, Forced to Fail: The Paradox of School Desegregation (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2005); Kenneth J. Meier, Joseph Steward, and Robert E. England, Race, Class and Education: The Politics of Second-Generation Discrimination (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1989), 81–99.
19. Michael Days and Mervin Aubespin, “Blacks See Their Hopes on Busing Swept Aside,” Louisville Courier-Journal, May 4, 1981.
20. Michael Wines, “Busing: 5 Years Later,” Louisville Times, May 12, 1980; Linda Stahl, “Private Schools Are Losing Students,” Louisville Courier-Journal, August 25, 1985.
21. Wines, “Busing: 5 Years Later.”
22. Days, “Blacks See Their Hopes.”
23. Bob Deitel, “Central High’s Enrollment Drop Underscores Problem, Officials Say,” Louisville Times, October 19, 1983.
24. Saundra Keyes, “Bused Students Seek More Medical Transfers,” Louisville Courier-Journal, September 26, 1983.
25. Days, “Blacks See Their Hopes.”
26. Dianne Aprile, “Pupils Who Live It Say Prejudices Fading,” Louisville Times, May 16, 1980.
27. Aprile, “Troubled Waters.”
28. Wines, “Busing: 5 Years Later.”
29. Saundra Keyes, “Programs, No Numbers, May Be Key to Busing Plan,” Louisville Courier-Journal, November 26, 1983.
30. Leslie Scanlon, “Many Doubt That Central Would Attract East End Students,” Louisville Courier-Journal, January 21, 1984.
31. National Commission on Excellence in Education, A Nation at Risk: The Imperative for Educational Reform, (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1983).
32. George H. Gallup and Stanley Elam, “The 13th Annual Gallup Poll of the Public’s Attitudes toward the Public Schools,” Phi Delta Kappan 63, no. 1 (1981).
33. “For the Record: President Reagan, Responding to Reporters’ Questions during a White House News Conference on May 17,” Education Week, May 25, 1983.
34. Katherine Magnuson and Jane Waldfogel, eds., Steady Gains and Stalled Progress (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2008).
35. David Grissmer, Ann Flanagan, and Stephanie Williamson, “Why Did the Gap Narrow in the 1970s and 1980s?” in The Black-White Test Score Gap, Christopher Jencks and Meredith Philips, eds. (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 1998), 195.
36. Ibid.
Chapter 14
1. Details of Carman Weathers’s life from author interviews with Weathers.
2. Roscoe Nance, “Jackson State Celebrates 100 Years of Football,” Southwestern Athletic Conference, November 7, 2011, databaseFootball.com.
3. Khristopher Brooks, phone interview with Marshall Gray, chairman of the Crispus Attucks Community Association, January 23, 2012, http://attucks.org.
4. James Nolan, “Pupil Assignments Still to Be Made,” Louisville Courier-Journal, July 24, 1974.
5. Greg Toppo, “Thousands of Black Teachers Lost Jobs,” USA Today, April 28, 2004.
6. Michael Fultz, “The Displacement of Black Educators Post-Brown: An Overview and Analysis,” History of Education Quarterly 44, no. 1 (2004): 14.
7. National Education Association, “Report of NEA Task Force III,” in School Desegregation: Louisiana and Mississippi (Washington, DC: NEA, November 1970), cited in Fultz, “Displacement of Black Educators,” 14.
8. Fultz, “Displacement of Black Educators,” 26–28.
9. Charles Walden, Southern Cities—Except Louisville—Desegregate Schools: A Report on Public Schools in Louisville, Kentucky and Major Southern Cities, 1968 and 1971 (Louisville: Commission on Human Rights, Commonwealth of Kentucky, May 1972), http://www.eric.ed.gov/.
10. Fultz, “Displacement of Black Educators,” 28.
11. Mary Margaret Bell, “Ahrens High School,” “Shawnee Junior High,” “Johnston School,” Jefferson County Public Schools History blog, http://media.jefferson.k12.ky.us/; “Ahrens, Shawnee Middle, 6 Elementaries May Close,” Louisville Courier-Journal, January 9, 1979.
12. “Hearing Is Rally for Threatened Schools,” Louisville Times, January 24, 1980.
13. “County Board Gets Three Alternatives on Middle Schools,” Louisv
ille Courier-Journal, January 22, 1980.
14. Leslie Scanlon, “DeRuzzo Details School Cutbacks,” Louisville Courier-Journal, January 8, 1981.
15. “Debt Helps Spare Fern Creek High from Closing Plan,” Louisville Courier-Journal, January 18, 1981.
Chapter 15
1. Saundra Keyes, “Black Leaders Condemn Ingwerson Plan,” Louisville Courier-Journal, March 20, 1984.
2. Leslie Scanlon, “Many Doubt That Central Would Attract East End Students,” Louisville Courier-Journal, January 21, 1984.
3. Saundra Keyes, “Endorsing Central as ‘Magnet’ School Skirted Real Issue,” Louisville Courier-Journal, January 16, 1984.
4. Saundra Keyes, “Citizens’ Panel Suggests Compromise on Central,” Louisville Courier-Journal, January 20, 1984; Saundra Keyes and Leslie Scanlon, “Compromise Offer on Busing Plan Getting Hard Look,” Louisville Courier-Journal, March 30, 1984.
5. “Highlights of Ingwerson’s Desegregation Plan,” Louisville Times, February 14, 1984; Saundra Keyes, “Majority of Ingwerson’s Committee Urges Withdrawal of Busing Plan,” Louisville Courier-Journal, March 24, 1984; Leslie Scanlon and Saundra Keyes, “Anatomy of a Controversy,” Louisville Courier-Journal, April 15, 1984.
6. Leslie Scanlon and John C. Long, “Advisory Panel Greets Plan with Wrath, Pleasure,” Louisville Courier-Journal, February 15, 1984; “Negotiators Praise Busing-Plan Accord,” Louisville Courier-Journal, March 31, 1984.
7. Leslie Scanlon, “Ingwerson Denies Plan Is ‘One-Way Busing,’ ” Louisville Courier-Journal, February 11, 1984.
8. Saundra Keyes, “Black Leaders Condemn Ingwerson Plan,” Louisville Courier-Journal, March 20, 1984; Saundra Keyes, “Revised Busing Plan Stirs Fear Central’s Enrollment Will Fall,” Louisville Courier-Journal, March 15, 1984.
9. Saundra Keyes and Leslie Scanlon, “Busing Plan Hearing at Central Filled with Emotion,” Louisville Courier-Journal, March 7, 1984.
10. Keyes, “Majority of Ingwerson’s Committee”; Saundra Keyes, “Black Ministers Plan Petition Drive against Busing Plan,” Louisville Courier-Journal, February 22, 1984.
11. Scanlon, “Anatomy of a Controversy.”
12. Saundra Keyes, “School Board Approves Busing Plan,” Louisville Courier-Journal, April 5, 1984.
13. “Desegregation Plan at a Glance,” Louisville Courier-Journal, April 5, 1984.
14. Al Cross, “Judge Frees Schools from Busing-Change Review,” Louisville Courier-Journal, September 26, 1985.
15. Bob Deitel, “Central High’s Enrollment Drop Underscores Problem, Officials Say,” Louisville Times, October 19, 1983; Cheryl Devall, “Central’s Attendance Is Too Low, Panel Fears,” Louisville Courier-Journal, September 20, 1984.
16. Daniel Rubin, “Schools Are Taking Aim at Better Attendance,” Louisville Courier-Journal, April 11, 1985.
17. Kit Lively, “Central High School Dealing with Many Changes This Year,” Louisville Times, February 8, 1985.
18. Al Cross, “Plan to Improve Central High School Approved,” Louisville Courier-Journal, July 16, 1985.
19. Alan Judd, “Central to Use Its Urban Setting, New Stability, to Sharpen Its Focus,” Louisville Courier-Journal, August 25, 1984.
20. Saundra Keyes, “Committee Is Urged to Reconsider ‘Magnet’ Plan for Central High,” Louisville Courier-Journal, January 18, 1984.
21. Daniel Rubin and Kit Lively, “Revised School Plan Greeted as Both Boon, Bust for West End,” Louisville Courier-Journal, March 13, 1986.
Chapter 16
1. Daniel Rubin and Leslie Scanlon, “Both Races Show Gains on Test, but an Analysis Shows an Achievement Gap,” Louisville Courier-Journal, August 25, 1985.
2. John R. Logan and Mark Schneider, “Racial Segregation and Racial Change in American Suburbs, 1970–1980,” American Journal of Sociology 89, no. 4 (1984): 874–88; Kenneth Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization of the United States (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), 393.
3. Gary Orfield, “Turning Back to Segregation,” in Dismantling Desegregation: The Quiet Reversal of Brown v. Board of Education, Gary Orfield and Susan Eaton, eds. (New York: New Press, 1996), 16–19.
4. Merrill Hartson, “Attorney General Doubts Value of Court-Ordered School Busing,” Associated Press, March 15, 1985.
5. Susan E. Eaton and Christina Meldrum, “Broken Promises: Resegregation in Norfolk, Virginia,” in Orfield, Dismantling Desegregation, 115.
6. Stephen Engelberg, “Norfolk Busing Case Viewed as Key to Keeping U.S. Schools Integrated,” New York Times, February 3, 1985.
7. Eaton, “Broken Promises.”
8. Lena Williams, “Controversy Reawakens as Districts End Busing,” New York Times, March 25, 1989.
9. Stuart Taylor Jr., “Court Won’t Hear 2 Busing Appeals,” New York Times, November 4, 1986; Lena Williams, “Norfolk Can Halt Busing of Pupils,” New York Times, February 8, 1986.
10. David G. Savage, “Rulings Displeased Both Right, Left,” Los Angeles Times, July 7, 1986.
11. Jeffrey Toobin, The Nine: Inside the Secret World of the Supreme Court (New York: Anchor Books, 2007), 33–37.
12. William Rehnquist, “A Random Thought on the Segregation Cases,” memo, 1952, PBS, The Supreme Court, “Primary Sources,” http://www.pbs.org/; Peter Irons, Jim Crow’s Children: The Broken Promise of the Brown Decision (New York: Penguin Books, 2002), 242.
13. Sharon LaFraniere, “At Justice, a Shift on School Desegregation; Department Not Attacking Court-Ordered Plans, Despite Recent Case,” Washington Post, January 24, 1991; Orfield, Dismantling Desegregation, 17.
14. Associated Press, “Supreme Court Rules on Busing; Districts May Sometimes Choose,” Seattle Post-Intelligencer, January 16, 1991.
15. David Savage, “Cases May Chart Future of School Desegregation,” Los Angeles Times, December 17, 1990.
16. Board of Education of Oklahoma City v. Dowell, 498 US 237, (1991); Anti-Discrimination Center, Dynamic Census Mapping, http://www.antibiaslaw.com.
17. Oklahoma City; Linda Greenhouse, “Justices Rule Mandatory Busing May Go, Even if Races Stay Apart,” New York Times, January 16, 1991.
18. Irons, Jim Crow’s Children, 269.
19. Robert Anthony Watts, “High Court Takes DeKalb School Case,” Atlanta Journal and Constitution, February 19, 1991.
20. Robert Anthony Watts, “Feds: Racial Balance OK in Schools in DeKalb,” Atlanta Journal and Constitution, May 4, 1991.
21. Robert Anthony Watts, “Stakes High in DeKalb School Desegregation Case,” Atlanta Journal and Constitution, October 6, 1991.
22. Robert Anthony Watts, “Faced with Busing, DeKalb Weighs the Impact of Its Magnet Force,” Atlanta Journal and Constitution, May 6, 1991.
23. Watts, “Stakes High.”
24. Irons, Jim Crow’s Children, 271–73.
25. Ibid., 274; Howard Ball, A Defiant Life: Thurgood Marshall and the Persistence of Racism in America (New York: Crown, 1998); “Retirement of Justice Marshall,” C-SPAN Video Library, June 28, 1991, http://www.c-spanvideo.org/.
26. Mary McGrory, “Bush’s Enigmatic Nominee,” Washington Post, July 9, 1991.
27. Ibid.
28. John E. Yang and Sharon LaFraniere, “Bush Picks Thomas for Supreme Court; Appeals Court Judge Served as EEOC Chairman in Reagan Administration,” Washington Post, July 2, 1991.
29. R. W. Apple Jr., “The Thomas Confirmation: Senate Confirms Thomas, 52-48, Ending Week of Bitter Battle,” New York Times, October 16, 1991.
30. Irons, Jim Crow’s Children, 273–77.
31. Freeman v. Pitts, 503 US 467 (1992).
32. Robert Anthony Watts, “High Court Upholds DeKalb in School Desegregation Case,” Atlanta Journal and Constitution, March 31, 1992.
33. Lee Sigelman and Susan Welch, Black Americans’ Views of Racial Inequality: The Dream Deferred (NY: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 123.
34. Ibid., 126.
35. Dennis Kelly, “Less than World-Class; U.S. Pupils Rank Low in Global Tes
t,” USA Today, February 6, 1992; Andrew Pollack, “Tokyo Journal: Students Get a Saturday Off: Can They Handle It?” New York Times, September 11, 1992.
36. Brian M. Stecher and Sheila I. Barron, Quadrennial Milepost Accountability Testing in Kentucky: CSE Technical Report 505 (Los Angeles: Graduate School of Education & Information Studies, University of California and RAND Education, June 1999), 2.
37. Ibid., 6.
38. Roger S. Pankratz, “The Legal and Legislative Battles,” in All Children Can Learn: Lessons from the Kentucky Reform Experience, Roger S. Pankratz and Joseph M. Petrosko, eds. (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2000), 11.
39. Eaton, “Broken Promises,” 130–33.
Chapter 17
1. Mary Margaret Bell, “Buechel Metropolitan High School,” Jefferson County Public Schools History blog; “Buechel Metropolitan High,” school profile, Jefferson County Public Schools, http://www.jefferson.k12.ky.us/.
2. Bell, “Buechel.”
3. Mary Margaret Bell, “Liberty High School,” Jefferson County Public Schools History blog.
4. “ ‘Low-Income Pupils Threaten Education of Others,’ Gamboa Says,” Louisville Courier-Journal, January 23, 1981.
5. Carman Weathers, “A Choice for African Americans,” Louisville Courier-Journal, December 17, 1991.
6. Roger Pankratz, “The Legal and Legislative Battles,” in All Children Can Learn: Lessons from the Kentucky Reform Experience, Roger S. Pankratz and Joseph M. Petrosko, eds. (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2000), 23.
7. Jack Foster, “A New Vision for Public Schooling,” in ibid., 53–58.
8. Stephen K. Clements, “Linking Curriculum and Instruction to Performance Standards,” in ibid., 109.
9. Brian M. Stecher and Sheila I. Barron, Quadrennial Milepost Accountability Testing in Kentucky: CSE Technical Report 505 (Los Angeles: Graduate School of Education & Information Studies, University of California and RAND Education, June 1999), 31.
10. James Raths, “Challenges in Implementing Kentucky’s Primary School Program,” in Pankratz, All Children Can Learn, 116–17.
11. “Jefferson May Rethink School Busing,” Louisville Courier-Journal, September 21, 1991.
12. “Busing of Elementary Students May End; County Seeks New Ways to Attain Racial Balance,” Louisville Courier-Journal, September 24, 1991.