Divided we Fail
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Columbine High School shooting, 150
Commission on Civil Rights, U.S., 98
Concerned Parents, 91
Conner, Sue, 91
Constitution, U.S., ix, 47, 87, 88, 144–45, 149, 152–53, 169
Cookson, Peter, 157
Coral Ridge Elementary School, 5–7, 192
Cortez, James, 71–72
Cosby, Kevin, 127–28
Cosby, Laken, 126–27
Cotter Homes (Louisville, KY), 72
Courier-Journal. See Louisville Courier-Journal
crack epidemic, 116
crime rates, 26, 116
Crisis (NAACP publication), 42
Crispus Attucks High School, 109
Cunningham, Robert, 97–98
Daeschner, Stephen, 133, 148, 149, 167, 170, 175
Dave, Krystal, 97
Davis Wright Tremain law offices, 183
“Day Law” (Kentucky school-segregation law), 45
DeKalb County, Georgia, 118–19, 120, 127
demographics and race, 197–98
Department of Education, U.S., 196
Department of Justice, U.S., 158
DeRuzzo, David, 111
desegregation: black achievement and, x, xi, 20, 77–78, 124–25, 126, 127, 128–29, 191; black activists on, xi–xii, 32–33, 42, 49, 83–84, 126–27, 128–29, 194, 197; black American view of, xi–xii, 23–24, 49–50, 120; black flight and, 96–97, 103, 116; black identity loss through, 96, 97, 103, 124–25, 128, 197; black parents on, 94, 120, 129, 192; public accommodations, 57–58, 65; social issues and, 26; white flight and, 4, 9, 88, 97, 102–3, 112–13, 116. See also school desegregation
“The Development of an Afrocentric Lifestyle Ministry” (Cosby), 127
discrimination. See racial discrimination
Dismantling Desegregation (Orfield), 169
“Does the Negro Need Separate Schools?” (Du Bois), 49
Dole, Bob, 156
Dorf, Michael, 181
Douglas, Robert: activism of, 22, 23, 27, 70, 108, 132, 137, 163, 168, 187; early years of, 20–21, 108; monitoring of assignment plans and, 130; Sandra Hampton and, 138; as SAVE founder, 146; on school desegregation, 153
Douglas, Vernon, 83
dropout rates, 102, 114
Du Bois, W. E. B., 42, 49, 96, 147–48, 197
Duncan, Arne, 198
Edmonson, Rachelle, 93
education reform, xii, 101, 104–5, 195–96
Eisenhower, Dwight D., 46, 54–55
Eisenhower Elementary School, 14
“Equality of Educational Opportunity” (Coleman Report), 77–78, 86
equal protection clause, ix, 144–45, 149, 152–53, 169
expectations. See accountability and outcomes
Fairdale, Kentucky, 4, 5–7, 97
Fairdale High School, 15, 93, 160, 162, 164, 192
Fair Housing Act of 1968, 97
Farrakhan, Louis, 25–26
Federal Housing Administration, 63, 64
Fenderson, Harold, 11, 132, 137–38, 167–68, 179–81, 187
Fern Creek High School, 18, 97, 111, 142–43, 221n1
Florence, Alabama, 39
Ford, Gerald, 90
Fourteenth Amendment, U.S. Constitution, ix, 144–45, 149, 152–53, 169
Freedom School, 188
functional illiteracy, 104
Garvey, Marcus, 26, 37, 69, 85–86, 96
gender integration, 52
gerrymandering school zones, 86
gifted and talented programs: absence of, 6; black students and, 166, 169, 191; racial disparity in, 24, 166, 169, 191; racial guideline exemption of, 15; traditional schools and, 174; white students and, 102, 114. See also Advance Program tracks
Ginsberg, Ruth Bader, 184–85
Goodwin, Beverly, 6–7
Gordon, James: busing plan of, 89, 94, 95, 110; early years of, 87; personality of, 87–88; school desegregation cases and, 88, 89, 90, 94
Gordon, Teddy B.: appearance of, 136; early years of, 135, 136–37; Harold Fenderson case and, 180–81; first Hampton case and, 135–39, 143–44, 145–49, 150–51, 152–54, 158, 159; McFarland case and, 173–76, 177–78, 181–82; Meredith case and, 173–76, 177–78, 181–85, 186–87, 189; political career of, 137; professional experience of, 135–36; second Hampton case and, 160–63, 164–65, 166–70, 178, 179, 187; 2011 pupil reassignment plan lawsuit and, 190–91
Gratz v. Bollinger, 175–76
Graves, Bob, 82–83
Grayson, Ernest, 100–101
Great Depression, 37, 41, 63
Great Migration, 33–34, 37, 42, 75
Greensboro, North Carolina, 57
Greenville, South Carolina, 155
Green v. New Kent County, 78–79, 80
Grubbs, Milliard, 48, 53, 54
Grutter v. Bollinger, 176, 182
Hampton, Sandra, 133, 138
Hampton v. Jefferson County Board of Education, ix–x, 132–33, 135–39, 143–54, 158–70, 179, 187
Hanushek, Eric, 183
harassment. See racial harassment and intimidation
Harlan, John, 47, 187
Harvard Graduate School of Education, 196
Hawkins, Sam, 70, 71–72
Haycraft, John, 83–84
Haycraft v. Board of Education, 83–84, 88, 89
Hays, Rutherford, 31
HEW (Department of Health, Education, and Welfare), 77, 78, 81–82, 85
Heyburn, John G.: Hampton case and, 139, 140–41, 144–49, 150, 152–54, 161–62, 166–70, 179; McFarland case and, 175–76, 178; Meredith case and, 175–76, 178, 181; 2011 pupil reassignment plan lawsuit and, 190–91
Hill, Anita, 120
Hilliard, Clara, 138
Hoblitzell, Bruce, 59
Hooper, Sara Jo, 102
Hopkinsville High School, 109
Hopson, Dejuan, 3, 5
Hopson, Dionne: activism of, 28; Central High admissions efforts of, 2–3, 8, 10, 11–12, 27, 150; on discrimination, 192; elementary school experience of, 5–7, 14; as Hampton lawsuit plaintiff, 133, 143, 145–46, 170; high school experience of, 138, 143, 152, 170, 192–93; loss of her father, 8, 10–11, 70, 192; middle school experience of, 7–8; personality of, 4, 10–11; racial harassment of, 7–8
Hopson, Gwendolyn “Gwen”: activism of, 27–28; early years of, 4–5, 9–10; as education activist, 9, 12; education of, 3, 8–9, 67; as Hampton lawsuit plaintiff, 133, 138, 143, 169–70; as a parent, 3–4, 5, 7, 10, 11, 12
Hopson, Thurman, 3, 8, 10
housing: discrimination, 21, 44–45, 48–49, 58–59, 63–65, 96–97; integration, 21, 44–45, 48–49, 58–59, 63–65, 68, 198; low-income, 86; segregation, 43, 44–45, 48–49, 88, 96–97
Houston, Charles, 43
“How to Integrate” (Time), 55
Hurricane Katrina, 195
Hyde County, North Carolina, 50
illiteracy, functional, 104
incentive programs, 126, 127, 128–30
income-based student assignment plans, 189–90
Independent Voters Association, 39
Ingwerson, Don Wayne: early years of, 101; incentive plan, 126, 127, 128–30; magnet school plan, 112–14; pupil reassignment plan, 129–30; resignation of, 131; as school superintendent, 102, 103–4, 140, 148
integration. See racial integration
intimidation. See racial harassment and intimidation
Issacharoff, Samuel, 155
Jackson, Jesse, 26, 85
Jackson State University, 108
Jefferson County Public School System: income-based student assignment plan, 189–90; KCLU lawsuits against, 83–84; Louisville school system merger, 84, 88, 90, 160; QUEST view of racism in, 154; racial guideline policies of, 173; school desegregation policies of, 2–3, 4, 13, 14, 18, 23, 27, 56, 112–14, 126, 129–30, 140; student racial makeup of, 102; teacher desegregation policies of, 57; as unitary district, 150, 169. See also Louisville school system
Jeffersontown, Kentucky, 97
Jim Crow era, 4, 17, 19, 26, 42, 65–66
Johnson, Lyman: civil rights activism of, 57, 84, 180; death of, 138; early years of, 30–31; graduate school court case of, 43, 44, 46; John G. Heyburn and, 139; as Louisville NAACP president, 159; on school desegregation, 24–25, 112, 127, 128, 151; teaching career of, 41–42, 66, 188; Wade home bombing and, 48; on Booker T. Washington, 33; Carman Weathers and, 108; Atwood Wilson and, 51
Johnson, Lyndon, 70, 76, 77–78, 79, 87, 89
Jones, Alberta, 39
Jones, Robert, 136
Judicial Conference of the United States, 139
Kammerer Middle School, 14–15
KCLU (Kentucky Civil Liberties Union), 83–84
Kennedy, Anthony, 120, 185, 186–87, 189–90, 199
Kennedy, David, 182
Kennedy, John F., 89
Kennedy, Robert, 79
Kentucky Alliance Against Racist and Political Repression, 21, 130, 158–60, 163, 187
Kentucky Civil Liberties Union (KCLU), 83–84
Kentucky Supreme Court, 191
KERA (Kentucky Education Reform Act), 121, 125–26, 149, 177, 195
Kerner Commission Report, 77
King, A. D., 67–68, 72
King, Martin Luther, Jr.: Muhammad Ali and, 69; assassination of, 9, 70, 71, 78, 79; inspiration of, 56–57, 67, 68, 164, 185; Louisville Southern Baptists and, 19; March on Washington and, 25
Klein, Joel, 196
Kluger, Richard, 42, 147
Ku Klux Klan, 26, 48, 53, 54, 89, 91, 93
Leet, Byron, 140, 150, 154, 159, 163
Liberation Bowl black history contest, 132, 189
Liberty High School, 124, 146
Little Africa neighborhood, 62–63, 65
Little Rock, Arkansas, x
Logan, Lisa, 138
Louisville, Kentucky: black leadership of, 20; culture of, 101–2; housing laws, 43; image of, 53, 54; integration of, 19; location of, 36; racism in, 19, 20, 37, 59; segregation in, 36–37; suburban growth, 36, 74–75
Louisville Association of Teachers in Colored Schools, 41–42
Louisville Courier-Journal, 12, 20, 23, 48, 57, 95, 101, 125, 153, 181
Louisville Municipal College for Negroes, 39
Louisville school system: income-based student assignment plan, 189–90; Jefferson County school system merger, 84, 88, 90, 160; racial ratios in, 126; school choice and, 24, 55–56, 78, 79, 157, 194, 196; school desegregation policies, 52–53, 54, 55–56, 62, 86, 103–4, 176; size of, 102; traditional schools in, 173–76; as a unitary district, 150, 169
Louisville Times, 43–44, 46
Lowell High School, San Francisco, 155
lunch counter sit-ins, 57
magnet schools, 8; admission policies, 170, 174; Afrocentric, 131; black students and, 24, 55–56, 129, 132–33, 133–34; as desegregation tool, 2–3, 83, 113–14, 130, 155, 162, 169, 191; job training, 11; popularity of, 137–38; success of, 155; white students and, 55–56, 129, 132–34
Male High School: Central High School rivalry, 95; early years of, 38; gender integration in, 52; racial integration in, 52–54, 67, 68, 96, 138, 162, 164
Manual High School, 82, 113–14, 138, 162, 164
Marshall, Thurgood, 24, 43, 46, 78–79, 118, 119, 120
Maupin Elementary School, 2, 4–5, 10
McConnell, Mitch, 139
McFarland, David, 173, 174, 175, 181
McFarland v. Jefferson County Board of Education, 173–76, 177–78, 181–82
McMillan, Joseph, 130, 146–48
Meese, Edwin, III, 116–17
Mellen, Frank, 140, 145, 154, 169, 184, 185
Mendez v. Westminster, 47
Meredith, Crystal, 172–73, 174–75, 181, 184, 186, 187
Meredith, James, x
Meredith v. Jefferson County Board of Education, ix, x, 173–78, 181–85, 186–87, 189, 199
Merritt, Joan Shields, 138
middle-income families, 38, 96–97, 113, 116, 174, 176, 188
military, racial integration of, 58–59
Milliken v. Bradley, 88, 89
Mills, Roger, 120
Minnis, Bernard, 92
Montgomery County, Maryland, 154
Moss, Loueva, 23
Muse, Clyde, 117
“My Old Kentucky Home,” 19–20, 75
NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People): Black Nationalism and, 37; black teacher salary campaign of, 41–43; Brown decision and, 54, 77, 78, 183; Civil Rights Act of 1964 and, 79–80; “doll studies,” 183; W. E. B. Du Bois and, 49; HEW complaint filings of, 81, 83; Lyman Johnson and, 24, 159; as pro-integration activists, 85; Seattle school desegregation lawsuit, 182; sit-ins and, 57; Booker T. Washington and, 33
National Assessment of Educational Progress, 105, 121, 125, 191
National Baptist Church, 33
National Black Political Convention, 85
National Negro High School Basketball Tournament, 39
A Nation at Risk report, 104–5, 120
Nation of Islam, 25–26, 69
Nation Time, 25–26, 37, 85–96
NCLB (No Child Left Behind) Act, 177, 178, 188, 198
Nelson County, Kentucky, 75
Newberg Area Council v. Board of Education, 83, 84, 88, 89
Newburg, Kentucky, 83–84, 110
New Orleans, 195–96
Newton, Fran. See Thomas, Fran Newton
Newton, Huey, 69, 72
New York City, 196
New York Times, 55, 72, 121
1960s racial turmoil, 19–10, 68, 70–72, 76
Nixon, Richard, 79, 82, 85, 87, 88, 90
No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act, 177, 178, 188, 198
No Excuses (Thernstrom), 178
Norfolk, Virginia, 117, 118, 121
Norton Elementary School, 14–15
Obama, Barack, 189, 195, 196, 197
O’Connor, Sandra Day, 176, 181–82
Oklahoma City, 117, 127
Okolona, Kentucky, 22, 93, 94, 97, 110
Old Kentucky Home High School, 74, 75
Old Louisville neighborhood, 68
Orange County, California, 101–2
Orfield, Gary, 148–49, 161–62, 169, 175
outcomes. See accountability and outcomes
out-migration, 33–34
Pacific Legal Foundation, 183–84
Panetta, Leon, 82
Parents for Quality Education, 97–98
Parents Involved in Community Schools, 182–83
Parents v. Seattle School District, ix, x, 182–83, 185, 186–87, 191, 199
Park DuValle Community Health Center, 139
Parkland Elementary School, 10
Parkland neighborhood, 2, 4–5, 9–10, 68
Payzant, Thomas, 196
Peace Corps, 70
Pew Research Center, 198
Plan X busing plan, 89, 94, 95, 110
Pleasure Ridge Park High School, 12, 138, 143
Plessy, Homer, 32
Plessy v. Ferguson, 32, 43, 46, 47, 50, 56, 118, 187
Porter, Maude Brown, 8, 38, 180
Porter, Steve, 128, 141, 151, 158, 159–60, 161, 163–67
Porter, Woodford, Sr., 114–15
post–Civil War South, 31
poverty: anti-poverty programs, 194–95; busing and, 113, 114; Depression era, 37; educational level and, 67; educational opportunity and, 96–97, 101, 114, 121, 128, 176–77, 192, 198; housing and, 86; income-based student assignment plans and, 189–90; parental expectations and, 102; racial integration and, 62–65; rural community, 6, 7; school closure and, 110–11; summer learning loss and, 188; unemployment and, 26, 37, 72; urban renewal and, 50, 62–65, 67, 188, 196; wealth gap and, 26; white flight and, 15–16
Powell, Lewis, 88, 91
Powers, Georgia, 128–29, 140
Prince Hall Masons, 9
private school vouchers, 156–57
Project Renaissance, 129–30, 131, 132–34, 140–41, 148, 157 protes
t zones, 22, 93–94
public accommodations desegregation, 57–58, 65
Public Agenda poll (1999), 157
pupil reassignment plan lawsuit, 2011, 190–91
QUEST (Quality Education for All Students), 128–29, 130–31, 140–41, 154, 159–60, 163
race and demographics, 197–98
racial discrimination: housing, 21, 43, 44–45, 48–49, 58–59, 63–65, 96–97; public accommodation and transportation, 57–58, 65
racial harassment and intimidation: bombing, 48; cross burning, 48, 54; Jim Crow era, 33; school choice and, 167; school desegregation, 16, 22, 160; White Citizens Council, 53, 54; white teenage, 7–8. See also Ku Klux Klan
racial integration: black activists on, xi–xii, 37; Du Bois on, 42, 49, 96, 147–48, 197; educational benefits of, 183; housing, 21, 44–45, 48–49, 58–59, 63–65, 68, 198; military progress in, 58–59; poverty and, 62–65; public accommodation and transportation, 57–58, 65; white view of, 120. See also desegregation; school desegregation
racial quotas. See school desegregation
racial turmoil and violence: civil rights, 19–20, 68, 70–72, 76; school desegregation, 52, 90, 91, 93–94, 102
racism: acceptance of, 97; color-blindness and, 47, 96, 119, 152–53, 187; in Louisville, 19, 20, 37, 59; political, 197; sexual stereotypes and, 43; among teaching staff, 53–54
Raleigh, North Carolina, 190
Reagan, Ronald, 26, 104–5, 116–17, 118, 120
Reed, Stanley, 47
Rehnquist, William, 88, 118, 139, 175, 182
Reid, Manfred, 70
“resegregation” of schools, 128
Rhee, Michelle, 196
Richmond, Virginia, 154–55
Robert Frost Middle School, 7–8, 12
Roberts, John, 182, 185, 186
Rockefeller, Nelson, 79
Roosevelt, Eleanor, 37
Roosevelt, Franklin D., 63
Ruffra, Jean, 89, 127
“rurbanization,” 75
Russell Junior High School, 109–10
Samuel Coleridge-Taylor Elementary School, xi, 108
San Francisco, 155
SAVE (Saving African-American Values and Economy), 130, 146
Save Our Community Schools (SOCS), 84–85, 87, 89, 91, 127
Scalia, Antonin, 185
Schaffner Elementary School, 76
Schmied, Kenneth, 71, 72
school choice, 24, 55–56, 78, 79, 157, 170, 196. See also Project Renaissance
school desegregation: achievement gap and, x, xi, 77–78, 127, 129, 168–69, 176, 177–78, 183, 191; affirmative action and, 79, 175–76, 182, 191; Afrocentric schools and studies and, 22, 26–27, 179; alternative schools and, 20, 124, 130, 160, 188, 192; black activists on, 24–25, 112, 124–25, 127, 128, 131–32, 140, 151, 153; black Americans on, xi–xii, 23–24, 49–50, 120; black educator view of, 49–50; black parents on, 129, 192; boycotts, 90; busing as tool in, ix, 4–5, 7, 25, 79–80, 84–85; in California, 46–47; charter schools use in, xii, 198; civil rights movement and, ix, 56–57, 89; clustering schools use in, 129; educational opportunity and, 160–65; end of, ix; exemptions to, 15, 140; federal legislation on, 90; gerrymandering school zones and, 86; HEW guidelines on, 77, 78, 81–82, 85; incentive programs use and, 126, 127, 128–30, 140; low-income housing and, 86; magnet schools use in, 2, 83, 113–14, 130, 155, 162, 169, 191; mandates, 52–53, 54–56, 62, 86, 176; preferential assignment use in, 183; promise of, 167, 189, 194–95; protest zones, 22, 93–94; questioning the wisdom of, 117, 120; racial quotas use in, x, 2–3, 11, 15, 22–23, 27, 90, 113, 124–26, 129, 140, 162, 167, 169, 173, 182; racial turmoil and violence, 52, 90, 91, 93–94, 102; school choice as tool of, 27, 55–56, 129, 132–34, 137–38, 156–57; school closure as tool of, ix, x, 50, 90, 103, 109, 110–11, 115, 153, 160, 180, 196; school systems mergers and, 84, 88, 90, 160; school transfer ban in, 154; separate but equal doctrine use in, 43, 47, 50; student gains through, 191; teacher layoff and firing use in, x, 110, 114, 153, 195–96; traditional schools and, 173–76, 177–78, 181–82; of unitary school districts, 117, 148, 150, 152, 154, 155, 169; urban school district decline and, 116; weighted lottery use in, 154–55; zoning use in, 81. See also busing