Spain's Road to Empire
Page 73
47. Jerald T. Milanich, Florida Indians and the Invasion from Europe, Gainesville 1995, p.230.
48. Weber, p.186.
49. Jones, pp.65–98.
50. Crosby, p.104.
51. Cited in Weber, p. 182.
52. Jones, p.8.
53. It is worth noting that Ortelius had already, one hundred years before, in his 1589 map of the Pacific shown Baja California as a peninsula.
54. Relation of Father Kino, in Bolton, p.450.
55. Bannon, p.150.
56. Cook, p.46.
57. For foreign merchants active in Spain, see Wilhelm von den Driesch, Die auslandischen Kaufleute während des 18. Jahrhunderts in Spanien und ihre Beteiligung am Kolonialhandel, Cologne 1972.
58. Palmer 1981, pp.87–88.
59. Cited in Lynch, p.150.
60. Hector R. Feliciano, El contrabando inglés en el Caribe y el Golfo de México (1748–1778), Seville 1990, pp.238–240.
61. Arauz, I, 149.
62. Grahn, p.27.
63. Ibid., p.96.
64. Ibid., p.122.
65. Enriqueta Vila Vilar, p.311.
66. Arauz, I, 46–66.
67. Ibid., 260.
68. Arauz, II, 55–69.
69. Arauz, I, 286.
70. Quoted in Padfield II, p.195.
71. Christopher J. French, ‘London's overseas trade with Europe 1700–1775’, JEEH, 23, iii, Winter 1994, p.492.
72. J. C. M. Ogelsby, ‘Spain's Havana squadron and the preservation of the balance of power in the Caribbean, 1740–1748’, HAHR, 69:3, 1969, p.479.
73. Schurz 1939, p.337.
74. The following draws heavily on Goodman 1972, chap.XI.
75. Lafuente and Mazuecos, p.19 5.
76. Ibid., p.98.
77. Ibid., p.68.
78. Ibid., pp.221–222.
79. See the informative chapter on ‘La gloria nacional', in ibid., pp. 195–23 5.
80. Cf. Karel Davids, ‘Openness or secrecy? Industrial espionage in the Dutch Republic’, JEEH, 24, ii, Fall 1995.
81. M. A. Echevarría, La diplomacia secreta en Flandes 1598–1643, Leioa 1984; cf. Stradling 1992, p.21 n.13.
82. José P. Merino Navarro, La Armada española en el siglo XVIII, Madrid 1981, pp.49–53, 68–71.
83. Ibid., pp.100–102.
84. Quoted in Lafuente and Mazuecos, p.232.
85. Folmer, p.307.
86. J. R. McNeill, Atlantic empires of France and Spain. Louisbourg and Havana, 1700–1763, Chapel Hill 1985, p.245 n.123.
87. David Syrett, ed., The siege and capture of Havana 1762, London 1970, p.xix.
88. J. R. McNeill, p.104; Syrett, p.xxxv.
89. Nicholas Tracy, Manila ransomed. The British assault on Manila in the Seven Years War, Exeter 1995, p.17.
90. Schurz 1939, pp.37, 42.
91. Phelan 1959, pp.145–147.
92. J. Kathirithamby-Wells, in Tarling, p.561.
93. Nicholas P. Cusher, Documents illustrating the British conquest of Manila 1762–1763, London 1971, p.118.
94. Schurz 1939, pp.339–40.
95. David F. Marley, ‘The Great Galleon: the Santisima Trinidad (1750–65)’, PS, 41 (1993).
96. Folmer, p.310.
97. Weber, p.201.
98. Cook 1973, p.49.
99. The Nootka incident (1789) marked a crucial moment in the history of the Russian, Spanish and Anglo-Saxon empires, but takes us beyond the limits set to the present story.
Chapter 11: Conclusion: The Silence of Pizarro
1. Rasler and Thompson, The Great Powers (cited in chap.i, n.46), p.6, admit only four empires to the status of ‘pre-eminent states’: those of Portugal, the Netherlands, Britain and the United States.
2. George Modelski and William R. Thompson, Seapower in global politics, 1494–1993, London 1988, pp.56, 174, 267.
3. Rasler and Thompson, p.7.
4. In reality the Portuguese and their empire both in the New World and in Asia have been brilliantly and exhaustively studied by a host of distinguished historians from Vitorino Magalhaes Godinho and Charles Boxer onwards. It is the role of the Portuguese within the Spanish empire that has received less attention.
5. Arco y Garay, pp.38–40.
6. Both quoted in Stradling 1994, pp.253–254.
7. Thompson 1992, chap.IV p.13.
8. Stradling 1992, pp.120–127.
9. This is a paraphrase of the summarized argument in Hopkins, ‘Back to the future’, p.205.
10. For communalism in early modern Europe, see my Early modern European society, London 2000, pp.9–14.
11. Cf the perceptive presentation in Chapter 1 of Pagden 1990.
12. The excessive attention paid to the cult figure of Las Casas, in particular, has tended to distort our vision of what the Spaniards really said and did in America.
13. Richard Herr, in New York Times, Book Review, 1 July 2001, p.21.
14. R. R. Davies, ‘Language and historical mythology’, TRHS, 6 ser., VII, p.15.
15. Cited by M. Fernández Alvarez, Tres embajadores de Felipe II en Inglaterra, Madrid 1951, p.143.
16. Fernand Braudel, Autour de la Méditerranée, Paris 1996, p.71.
17. Kamen 1993, p.218.
18. Kamen 1997 p.221.
19. Ochoa, V, 610.
20. Kamen 1997, p.220.
21. Cf. J. Israel, ‘The Jews of Spanish Oran’, in Israel 1997, pp.221–224.
22. Essen 1944, p.141.
23. Gutiérrez, pp. 195–206, gives one example out of many that can be cited.
24. Didier Ozanam, ‘La diplomacia de los primeros Borbones (1714–1759)’, Cuadernos de Investigación Histórica, no.6, p.182.
25. The incident that follows is related in Herrero Sánchez, p.163.
26. The Pensionary was the Chief Executive of the province of Holland.
27. Alonso de Sandoval, De Instaurando Aethiopum salute, Seville 1627, in a modern edition by Enriqueta Vila Vilar, as Un tratado sobre la esclavitud, Madrid 1987, p.381.
28. Wachtel, p.71.
29. Cf. the essay by J. Goody and I. Watt, ‘The consequences of literacy’, first published in 1962 and reprinted in P. P. Giglioli, ed., Language and social conflict, Harmondsworth 1972.
30. Wachtel, p.73.
31. Milagros Ezquerro, ‘L'identité paraguayenne au peril du bilinguisme espagnol-guarani’, in Milagros Ezquerro, ed., Identité et altérité, Caen 1994, p.90.
32. Cf. Frank Salomon, ‘Chronicles of the impossible’, in Rolena Adorno, ed., From oral to written expression: native Andean chronicles of the early colonial period, Syracuse 1982, p.32: Guaman, he says, ‘tries to speak through two qualitatively different systems of thought at the same time’.
33. Cited by Manuel Alvar, ‘Lengua, imágenes y cambio cultural en América’, Torre de Lujanes, 42, Oct 2000, p.84.
34. Alonso de Zorita, The Lords of New Spain, ed. Benjamin Keen, Rutgers 1963, p.125.
35. Serge Gruzinski, The Conquest of Mexico. The incorporation of Indian societies into the western world, 16th to 18th centuries, Cambridge 1993, p.59.
36. Gruzinski, p.91.
37. Quoted in Pagden 1990, p.58.
38. Cited in Green, III, 84.
39. Cf. Ochoa, IV, 502.
40. Essen 1933, II, 36.
41. At least, it was half-empty when I visited it some years ago.
42. Polišenský 1978, p.32.
43. See the pioneering study by Otto Brunner, Neue Wege der Sozialgeschichte, Gottingen 1956.
44. L'Age d'Or de l'Influence espagnole. La France et l'Espagne á l'époque d'Anne d'Autriche 1615–1666, Paris 1991, p.51.
45. M. J. Martinez Alcalde, Las ideas linguísticas de Gregorio Mayáns, Valencia 1992, pp.243–244.
46. Furber, p.298.
47 C. R. Boxer, The Portuguese Seaborne Empire 1415–1825, Harmondsworth 1973, p. 128.
48. J. S. Cummins, A question of rites. Friar Domingo Navarrete and the Jesuits in China, Aldershot 1993, p.210.
/>
49. López-Baralt, p.303. The illustration is reproduced at the head of this chapter.
50. MacCormack, p.348.
51. P. Van der Loon, ‘The Manila incunabula and early Hokkien studies’, Asia Major, XII, 1966, p.30.
52. Quoted in Edward Glaser, Estudios Hispano-Portugueses. Relaciones litera-rias del Siglo de Oro, Madrid 1957, pp.v–vii.
53. Vicente L. Rafael, Contracting colonialism. Translation and Christian conversion in Tagalog society under early Spanish rule, Ithaca 1988, p.26.
54. The study by Vicente Rafael is a brilliant exposition along these lines.
55. Cf. MacCormack, p.407. My experience of life in British India was comparable. The British learnt to speak a pidgin language, called Hindustani, that established a basic communication but little more.
56. Hillgarth, p.48.
57. Kamen 1980, p.8.
58. Gutiérrez, p. 182.
59. As explored in the rich volumes of Donald Lach, Asia in the making of Europe, 3 vols, Chicago 1965–1993.
60. Cf. Jonathan D. Sauer, ‘Changing perception and exploitation of New World plants in Europe, 1492–1800’, in F. Chiapelli, ed., First images of America: the impact of the New World on the Old, 2 vols, Berkeley 1976, II, 813–832.
61. Hillgarth, p.73.
62. Kamen 1980, pp.313, 319.
63. Ibid., p.322.
64. A persistent strategy has been to shift the blame for Spain's cultural isolation on to the Inquisition.
65. See Chapter 4 above.
66. Mannheim p.71.
67. Federico Suarez, El proceso de la convocatoria a Cortes (1808–1810), Pamplona 1982, p.410.
68. For all these quotations, Timothy E. Anna, ‘Spain and the breakdown of the Imperial Ethos’, in Armitage, pp.326, 328.
69. Cf. J. M. López Piñero et al., Materiales para la historia de las ciencias en España, s.XVI-XVII, Valencia 1976.
70. Isaba, pp.216–217.
71. Quoted in Henri Lonchay, La rivalité de la France et de l'Espagne aux Pays-Bas 1635–1700, Brussels 1896, p.26.
72. BL Add.28399 ff.7–9.
73. Croce, p. 145. Serra's views seem to have relevance also to the current debate over ‘globalization’.
74. Mario Rizzo, ‘Lo Stato di Milano nell'eta di Filippo II’, in Elena Brambilla and Giovanni Muto, La Lombardia spagnola, Milan 1997, p.381. See also Romano Canosa, Milano nel Seicento. Grandezza e miseria nell' Italia spagnola, Milan 1993: ‘It is no longer acceptable to make a contrast between a pure Italian spirit (good) and the dominance of a Spanish culture (bad).’
75. Cf. the comments of Bartolome Yun, ‘La economia castellana en el sistema político imperial en el siglo XVI’, in Aurelio Musi, ed., Nel sistema imperiale: I'Italia spagnola, Naples 1994, pp.217–219.
76. Alejandro Ramírez, Epistolario de Justo Lipsio y los españoles (1577-1606), St Louis 1967, pp.337, 402.
77. Otte 1988, p.57.
78. Ibid. p. 562.
79. Rubens, p.207.
80. Weber, p.263.
81. Quoted in Stradling 1994, p.204.
82. Lockhart and Otte, p.6. The figure of 8,000 was, of course, exaggerated. But even half that figure would have amounted to the number of people whom terrorists murdered in the same interval of time in New York on 11 September 2001.
83. Nearly three times as many as died in the massacre of St Bartolomew in Paris four years previously: cf. Motley, p.640.
Select Bibliography
This bibliography is limited to items of general relevance or cited in more than one chapter; other items appear in the footnotes to each chapter.
Aedo y Gallart, D., Viage, successos y guerras del Infante Cardenal Don Fernando de Austria, Madrid 1637
Alcalá Zamora y Queipo de Llano, José, España, Flandes y el Mar del Norte (1618–1639), Barcelona 1975
Altman, Ida, Emigrantes y sociedad. Extremadura y América en el siglo XVI, Madrid 1992
Andrews, Kenneth R., The Spanish Caribbean. Trade and plunder 1530–1630, New Haven, CT 1978
Andrews, Kenneth R., Trade, plunder and settlement. Maritime enterprise and the genesis of the British Empire, 1480–1630, Cambridge 1984
Arauz, Celestino A., El contrabando holandés en el Caribe durante la primera mitad del siglo XVIII, 2 vols, Caracas 1984
Arco y Garay, Ricardo del, La idea de imperio en la política y la literatura españolas, Madrid 1944
Armitage, David, ed., Theories of Empire, 1450–1800, Aldershot 1998
Attman, Artur, American Bullion in the European World Trade 1600–1800, Goteborg 1986
Attman, Artur, Dutch Enterprise in the World Bullion Trade 1550–1800, Goteborg 1983
Avila y Zúñiga, Luis de, Comentarios de la Guerra de Alemania hecha de Carlo V, Antwerp 1549
Bannon, J. F., The Spanish Borderlands frontier 1513–1821, New York 1970
Barbour, Violet, Capitalism in Amsterdam in the 17th century, Ann Arbor 1963
Bernal, Antonio-Miguel, La financiación de la Carrera de Indias, Seville 1992
Bolton, H. E., Spanish exploration in the Southwest 1542–1706, New York 1908
Botero, Giovanni, Le Relationi universali, Venice 1605
Bowser, Frederick P., The African slave in colonial Peru 1524–1650, Stanford 1974
Boxer, C. R., The great ship from Amacon. Annals of Macao and the old Japan trade, 1555–1640, Lisbon 1959
Boxer, C. R., The Christian Century in Japan 1549–1650, Berkeley 1967
Boxer, C. R., ‘Portuguese and Spanish projects for the conquest of southeast Asia, 1580–1600 Journal of Asian History, III, 1969
Boxer, C. R., The Church militant and Iberian expansion 1440–1770, Baltimore 1978
Boyajian, James C., Portuguese bankers at the court of Spain, 1626–1650, New Brunswick 1983
Boyajian, James C., Portuguese trade in Asia under the Habsburgs, 1580–1640, Baltimore 1993
Brading, D. A., The first America. The Spanish monarchy, Creole patriots and the Liberal state 1492–1867, Cambridge 1991
Bradley, Peter T., The lure of Peru. Maritime intrusion into the South Sea 1598-1701, London 1989
Brantôme, Pierre de Bourdeille, abbé de, Oeuvres complétes, 2 vols, Paris 1898
Braudel, Fernand, The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II, 2 vols, London 1973
Bray, Warwick, The gold of El Dorado, London 1978
Calabria, Antonio, The Cost of Empire. The finances of the kingdom of Naples in the time of Spanish rule, Cambridge 1991
Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas: vol. I, North America, part 1, ed. B. G. Trigger and W. E. Washburn, Cambridge 1996; vol. III, South America, parts 1 and 2, ed. Frank Salomon and Stuart B. Schwarz, Cambridge 1999
Canny, Nicholas and Pagden, Anthony, Colonial Identity in the Atlantic World, 1500–1800, Princeton 1987.
Caraman, Philip, The lost paradise. An account of the Jesuits in Paraguay 1607-1768, London 1975
Carande, Ramón, Carlos V y sus banqueros, 3 vols, 2nd ed. Madrid 1965–1967
Castillo de Bobadilla, Jerónimo, Política para corregidores, 2 vols, Madrid 1597
Castro, Américo, España en su historia, Barcelona 1983 (orig. Buenos Aires 1948)
Chevalier, François, Land and society in colonial Mexico, Berkeley 1963
Cook, Noble David, Born to die. Disease and New World conquest, 1492-1650, Cambridge 1998
Colloquio, XIII: see end of bibliography
Cook, Warren L., Flood tide of empire. Spain and the Pacific Northwest, 1543-1819, New Haven, CT 1973
Croce, Benedetto, History of the Kingdom of Naples, Chicago 1970
Crónicas del Gran Capitán, ed. Antonio Rodriguez Villa, Madrid 1908 (Nueva Biblioteca de Autores Españoles, vol.10)
Crosby, Alfred W., The Columbian exchange. Biological and cultural consequences of 1492, Westport, CT 1972
Cross, Harry, ‘South American bullion production and export 1550–1750’, in J. F. Richards, ed., Precious metals in th
e later medieval and early modern worlds, Durham, NC 1983
Cutter, Donald, and Engstrand, Iris, Quest for empire. Spanish settlement and the Southwest, Golden, CO 1996
Domínguez Ortiz, Antonio, Política y Hacienda de Felipe IV, Madrid 1960
Donnan, Elizabeth, Documents illustrative of the history of the slave trade to America, 3 vols, Washington 1930
Ellis, David, ‘The slave economies of the Caribbean’, in Franklin W. Knight, General History of the Caribbean. Vol.II: The slave societies of the Caribbean, London 1997
Essen, Alfred van der, Le Cardinal-Infant et la politique européenne de l'Espagne 1609–1641, Brussels 1944
Essen, Léon van der, Alexandre Farnèse, prince de Parme, gouverneur général des Pays Bas (1545–1592), 5 vols, Brussels 1933
Fernández-Armesto, Felipe, The Canary Islands after the conquest, Oxford 1982
Fisher, John R., The economic aspects of Spanish imperialism in America, 1492-1810, Liverpool 1997
Folmer, Henry, Franco-Spanish rivalry in North America 1524–1763, Glendale 1953
Foster, Robert, ed., European and non-European societies, 1450–1800, 2 vols, Aldershot 1997
Friede, Juan, Los Welser en la conquista de Venezuela, Caracas 1961
Furber, Holden, Rival empires of trade in the Orient 1600–1800, Minneapolis 1976
Galasso, Giuseppe, Alla periferia dell'Impero. Il Regno di Napoli nel periodo spagnolo (secoli XVI–XVII), Turin 1994
Galasso, Giuseppe and Migliorini, Luigi, L'Italia moderna e l'unità nazionale, Turin 1998
Garcia Cerezeda, Martín, Tratado de las campañas de los ejércitos del emperador Carlos V desde 1521 hasta 1545, 3 vols, Madrid 1873
García Hernán, Enrique, La acción diplomática de Francisco de Borja al servicio del Pontificado 1571–1572, Valencia 2000
Gil, Juan, Hidalgos y Samurais. España y Japón en los siglos XVI y XVII, Madrid 1991
Goodman, David C., Power and Penury. Government, technology and science in Philip II's Spain, Cambridge 1988
Goodman, David C., Spanish naval power, 1589–1665, Cambridge 1997
Goodman, Edward J., The explorers of South America, New York 1972
Grahn, Lance, The political economy of smuggling. Regional informal economies in early Bourbon New Granada, Boulder 1997
Green, Otis H., Spain and the western tradition. The Castilian mind in literature from El Cid to Calderón, 4 vols, Madison 1968