The Forge of Christendom: The End of Days and the Epic Rise of the West
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51 “Poeta Saxo,” p. 70.
52 Regino of Prüm, p. 129.
53 From the protocols of an imperial synod at Trosly, 909. Quoted by Bloch (1989), vol. 1, p. 3.
54 Otto of Freising, p. 66.
55 “A Letter on the Hungarians.” Cited by Huygens, p. 232.
56 Ibid.
57 Ibid. The phrase is a quotation from Gregory the Great.
58 Cited by Fried, p. 31.
59 Abbo of Fleury, col. 471 A.
60 Ibid.
61 Heliand, pp. 119–20.
62 Adso of Montier-en-Der, p. 90.
63 Ibid.
64 Ibid.
2 The Old Order Changeth…
1 Thietmar, 6.23.
2 Or rather not strictly speaking a capital, but what in Latin was termed a “civitas”: an untranslatable word. It was so described by Otto I, in his diploma of 937.
3 Widukind, 1.36.
4 Thietmar, 6.23.
5 Alcuin, Letter 113.
6 Widukind, 1.15.
7 Liudprand, History of Otto, 2.20.
8 Widukind, 1.41.
9 Liudprand, Antapodosis, 4.25.
10 Widukind, 2.1.
11 Ibid., 2.36.
12 Ruodlieb, fragment 3.
13 Heliand, chapter 58, lines 4865–900. The poem almost certainly dates from the reign of Charlemagne’s son, Louis I. The lines quoted echo Matthew 26.53.
14 Widukind, 3.46.
15 Ibid., 3.49.
16 Otto I, p. 503.
17 Thietmar, 2.17.
18 Ibid., 7.16.
19 Ibid., 2.17.
20 Widukind, 3.75.
21 Leo the Deacon, 1.1. The apocalyptic tone of Byzantine writers of the late tenth century is all the more striking for the fact that Constantinople had not adopted the anno Domini dating system.
22 See Mango, p. 211.
23 Leo the Deacon, 2.8.
24 See Paul Magdalino, “The Year 1000 in Byzantium,” in Magdalino (2003), p. 244.
25 By the admittedly venomous and resentful Liudprand of Cremona. The Mission to Constantinople, 3.
26 John Skylitzes, p. 271.
27 Thietmar, 4.10.
28 Albert of Metz, p. 698.
29 Liudprand, Antapodosis, 1.3.
30 Liudprand, The Mission to Constantinople, 10.
31 Matthew 24.11.
32 The originator of the phrase was St. John of Damascus, in his book On the Heretics – although, as Sahas points out, he applied it to “the religion of the Ishmaelities,” rather than to Mohammed himself (footnote 7, p. 69).
33 The number of military expeditions in which Mohammed took part is set by an early Muslim historian, Ibn Ishaq, at twenty-seven; he is supposed to have fought personally in nine of these. For the execution of seven hundred prisoners of war in the market place of Medina, see Armstrong, p. 207. The most celebrated opponent of Mohammed to be assassinated on the Prophet’s orders was Ka’b ibn al-Ashraf, a poet overly given to writing erotic verses about Muslim women.
34 From a Greek polemic, probably written around 640. Quoted by Crone and Cook, pp. 3–4.
35 An opinion expressed in the unlikely context of a military treatise, written in the sixth century by a Byzantine combat engineer. Quoted by Dennis (1985), p. 21.
36 Qur’an 9.29.
37 Leo VI, Tactics, 18.24.
38 Ibid., 2.45.
39 Thietmar, 3.20.
40 Ibid., 3.23.
41 Ibid., 3.21.
42 The phrases come from a verse epitaph inscribed on the tomb of Basil II (reigned 976–1025), aptly nicknamed the “Bulgar-slayer.”
43 Quoted in Bonner (2004), p. xxi.
44 Ibn Hawqal, The Face of the Earth. Quoted in Whittow, p. 328.
45 John VIII. Quoted in McCormick (2001), p. 736.
46 Bernard the Monk, Itinera Hierosolymitana, pp. 310–11.
47 Erchempert, 17.
48 Qur’an 7.4.
49 Ibid., 8.1.
50 Ibid., 8.41.
51 Umar, who ruled as the second Caliph. Quoted by Brague, p. 35.
52 Qur’an 9.29.
53 John of St. Arnoul, 136.
54 Ibid., 132.
55 Ibid., 133.
56 Hrotsvit of Gandersheim, line 12. The phrase is all the more suggestive for coming, not from a Muslim source, but from a poem written by a Saxon nun. The phrase refers specifically to the city of Córdoba, and it is widely accepted that Hrotsvit may have obtained her information from a member of John’s embassy to the Caliph.
57 See Bulliet, pp. 38–51.
58 Ibn Hawqal, The Face of the Earth. Quoted in Fierro, p. 16.
59 The words date from the thirteenth century, but the sentiment was timeless. Ibn Idhari. Quoted by Kennedy, p. 22.
60 Liudprand, Antapodosis, 6.6.
61 Quoted in Karsh, p. 63.
62 A celebrated hadith, narrated by Al-Bayhaqi.
63 Gibbon, vol. 3, p. 348. All the figures relating to the caliphal library at Córdoba are exaggerations.
64 Widukind, 3.56.
65 Richer, 3.55.
66 Ibid., 3.52.
67 Thietmar, 3.18.
68 Gerbert, Letter 23.
69 Ibid., Letter 51.
70 Thietmar, 4.10.
71 Or perhaps the autumn. See Althoff, p. 52.
72 Gerbert, Acta Concilii Remensis ad Sanctum Basolum, p. 676 MGH SS, 3.676.
73 “A Song for SS. Peter and Paul’s Day,” Primer of Medieval Latin, p. 340.
74 John Canaparius, 21.
75 Arnold of Regensburg, 2.34.
76 Paulinus of Aquileia, 5.7. In sober point of historical fact, there is no firm evidence that Christians were ever martyred in the Colosseum.
77 Arnold of Regensburg, 2.34.
78 Annales Quedlinburgenses, p. 73.
79 Ex Miraculis Sancti Alexii, p. 620.
80 Thietmar, 4.48.
81 John Canaparius, 23.
82 Bruno of Querfort, Passio Sancti Adalberti, 23.
83 “Deus Teutonicus.” See Jones and Pennick, p. 170.
84 The chronology of this is generally accepted, but not universally. See, e.g., The Letters of Gerbert, p. 285.
85 Gerbert, Letter 221.
86 Ibid., Letter 230.
87 Ibid., Letter 232.
88 Ibid., Letter 231.
89 Annales Hildesheimenses, 3, Preface.
90 Leo of Synada, p. 20.
91 Annales Quedlinburgenses, p. 74.
92 John the Deacon, p. 31.
93 Vita Sancti Nili, p. 617.
94 From the “Graphia Aureae Urbis Romae,” a guidebook to the wonders of Rome written in the twelfth century, but drawing on descriptions written around the Millennium. Quoted in Schramm 2 (1929), p. 76.
95 One source (the Gesta Episcoporum Cameracensium) describes Otto’s palace as being built on the Aventine Hill, opposite the Palatine: a mistranscription that has resulted in much confusion. For a good analysis of the controversy, and a definitive resolution, see Augenti, pp. 74–5.
96 Leo of Vercelli, verse 8. Baghdad is titled “Babylon.”
97 Ibid., verse 10.
98 Gallus Anonymus, p. 37.
99 Chronicon Novaliciense, 106.
100 Revelation 19.14.
101 Thietmar, 4.47.
102 Adam of Bremen, 2.40.
103 Thietmar, 4.48.
104 Thangmar, p. 770.
105 Peter Damian, Vita Romualdi, pp. 45–6.
106 Peter Damian, Letters, vol. 1, p. 199. The Gospel verse cited is Matthew 24.27.
107 Bruno of Querfort, Vita Quinque Fratrum, 7.
108 Ibid. The Latin word is “honore”: literally, the “badge” or “attribute” of royalty.
109 Ibid.
110 Adémar, 3.31.
111 Quoted by Fried, p. 39.
112 Rhythmus de Obitu Ottonis III. Quoted by Gregorovius, p. 496.
113 Bruno of Querfort, Vita Quinque Fratrum, 7.
3 …Yielding Place to New
1 Adso of Montier-en-Der, p. 96. The last phrase is from 2 Thessalonians 2.8.
2 Flodoard, p. 138
3 From a twelfth-century chronicler of Laon. Quoted by Poly, p. 292
4 Flodoard, p. 101
5 Chronicon Mosomense, 1.7
6 Fulbert of Chartres, Letter 47
7 Glaber, 2.8
8 Byrhtferth, pp. 132–3
9 Andrew of Fleury, Vie de Gauzlin, Abbé de Fleury, 68a.
10 Abbot of Fleury, col. 472 C.
11 Matthew 24.7–8. The verses were echoed in the letter of Gauzlin, Abbot of Fleury, to King Robert (Andrew of Fleury, Vie de Gauzlin, 68b).
12 Adémar, 205
13 Louis IV, 1, 4
14 Dudo, p. 81
15 Gesta Consulum Andegavorum, 47
16 Glaber, 2.4
17 Gesta Consulum Andegavorum, 45–6
18 Archives d’Anjou, vol. 1, p. 60
19 Cartulaire du Ronceray, no. 4
20 From a letter Fulk wrote to the local archbishop. Quoted by Bachrach (1985), p. 245
21 Glaber, 2.7
22 Documents pour l’Histoire de l’Église de Saint-Hilaire de Poitiers, p. 74
23 Bachrach (1985), p. 252
24 In Latin, “fidelissimus.” Quoted by Guillot, p. 16
25 Liber Miraculorum Sancte Fidis, 1.33
26 Matthew 24.12
27 Richer, 4.37
28 Adalbero of Laon, line 37
29 Glaber, 4.12
30 Ibid., 2.17
31 Aelfric, 19–20. The writer was English, but the horrors of an early start can be reckoned universal.
32 Hariulf, 4.21
33 Vita et Miracula Sancti Leonardi, 3
34 Sigehard, 2
35 Glaber, 2.10–12
36 Odo of Cluny, col. 562. Odo was citing – or believed that he was citing – St. Jerome.
37 From an oath imposed on knights at Beauvais in 1023. Reproduced in Head and Landes, pp. 332–3
38 Quoted by Iogna-Prat (2002), p. 37
39 Andrew of Fleury, Vie de Gauzlin, 44a.
40 Matthew 25.35–6
41 John of Salerno, Life of St. Odo, 2.4
42 Revelation 21.2
43 John of Salerno, Life of St. Gerald of Aurillac, 2.8
44 The Rule of St. Benedict, “Of Humility” (chapter 7).
45 Peter the Venerable, 1.12
46 Glaber, 5.13
47 Liber Tramitis Aevi Odilonis Abbatis, p. 4.
48 Quoted by Constable (2000), p. 415. The phrase comes from the confirmation of Cluny’s privileges issued in 931 by the Pope.
49 Odo of Cluny, col. 585
50 John of Salerno, Life of St. Gerald of Aurillac, 1.8
51 Ibid., 2.17
52 Glaber, 4.14
53 Letaldus of Micy, Delatio Corporis Sancti Juniani ad Synodem Karoffensem. Reproduced in Head and Landes, p. 328
54 Glaber, 4.16
55 Liber Miraculorum Sancte Fidis, 2.4
56 Ibid., 1.13
57 Glaber, 4.16
58 From an anathema pronounced against the murderers of an archbishop of Reims in 900. See Fichtenau, p. 396
59 Fulbert of Chartres, “The Joy of Peace,” in Letters and Poems, p. 263
60 The council has also variously been dated to 1018, 1019 or 1021
61 Odo of Cluny, col. 581
62 Revelation 14.3–4. The monk was Aldebald of St. Germain d’Auxerre.
63 Adalbero of Laon, line 156
64 Ibid., lines 295–6.
4 Go West
1 Henry II, p. 424
2 Ibid., p. 170
3 Wulfstan, Lectio Sancti Evangelii Secundum Matheum 2 .
4 Adam of Bremen, 4.26
5 Thietmar, 8.2
6 Geoffrey of Malaterra, 1.1
7 Jordanes, 4
8 Adam of Bremen, 4.26
9 Snorri Sturluson, King Harald’s Saga, p. 67
10 Dudo, p. 15
11 Egil’s Saga, Page, p. 70
12 Ibid.
13 The Raven’s Tale, Page, p. 107
14 The Lay of Helgi, Killer of Hunding, Page, p. 130
15 Cartulaire de l’Abbaye de Saint-Aubin d’Angers, no. 21
16 Hávamál, Page, p. 141
17 The narrative given here depends upon sources that are either fragmentary or late. Nevertheless, it is broadly accepted. For the best account, see Crouch (2002), pp. 2–8.
18 Adémar, 140
19 Dudo, p. 149
20 Ibid., p. 29
21 Inventio et Miracula Sancti Vulfranni, 7
22 Dudo, p. 150
23 Plaintsong of William Longsword, in Van Houts, p. 41
24 Dudo, p. 8
25 Warner of Rouen, 40–1
26 It is possible, of course, that there were older charters that used the title but have not survived. Some historians have argued that it was applied to Richard I during the last years of his reign.
27 Richer, 1.156
28 Blickling Homilies, p. 76
29 The author himself makes an allusion to the date within the text of his homily – a level of precision that is unusual, and surely suggestive.
30 Blickling Homilies, p. 82
31 In truth, the descent of the House of Wessex from Cerdic may not have been quite as unbroken as its propagandists liked to claim – but it was almost universally accepted, nevertheless.
32 History of the Ancient Northumbrians. Quoted by Wood (1981), p. 184
33 The site of the battle, “Brunanburh,” remains unknown. For a typically stirring account of the attempt to solve the mystery, see “Tinsley Wood” in Wood (1999).
34 The Annals of Ulster, entry for 939.6
35 See Loomis (1950) for a fascinating piece of historical detective work, tracing how a “holy spear” might indeed have passed from Charlemagne, via Duke Hugh, into the care of Athelstan.
36 Or given secret burial in a commoner’s house, or even, according to one account, burned. If the latter, then the body venerated as Edward’s could not, of course, have been his.
37 The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle(Peterborough Manuscript), entry for 979
38 Ibid. (Abingdon Manuscript).
39 Blickling Homilies, p. 64
40 Campbell (2000), p. 173
41 Warner of Rouen, 75–7
42 Wulfstan, The Sermon of the Wolf to the English.
43 Aelfric’s Catholic Homilies, p. 37
44 William of Malmesbury, 2.2
45 Adam of Bremen, 2.40
46 Ibid., 2.57. For the hirsute character of women in the furthest reaches of Scandinavia, see 4.32
47 That Trygvasson led the Viking army at Maldon is something more than inference, something less than a certainty. To maintain it, as the leading authority on the battle has put it, is “to give oneself the benefit of the doubt, but such leaps are the stuff of Anglo-Saxon history” (Scragg, p. 90).
48 Battle of Maldon, p. 294
49 Although our earliest source for the epithet is posthumous, it seems probable that it originated during Ethelred’s lifetime.
50 The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, entry for 1002
51 Matthew 13.37–40
52 Renewal by King Ethelred for the monastery of St. Frideswide, Oxford: EHD, document 127
53 Quoted by Wulfstan, Lectio Sancti Evangelii Secundum Matheum.
54 Blickling Homilies, p. 145
55 Adam of Bremen, p. 229
56 Hávamál, Page, p. 142
57 Adam of Bremen, 4.39
58 Ari Thorgilsson, p. 66
59 Snorri Sturluson, Heimskringla. King Olaf Trygvasson’s Saga, 37
60 Forkbeard’s presence at Maldon, like that of Trygvasson, has to be inferred. See the essay by Niels Lund, “The Danish Perspective,” in Scragg (pp. 137–8).
61 Saxo Grammaticus, 10.8.4
62 Thietmar, 7.36
63 Snorri Sturluson, Heimskringla. King Olaf Trygvasson’s Saga, 121
64 The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, entry for 1014
65 Ottar the Black, p.
308
66 Encomium Emmae Reginae, 2.4
67 Wulfstan, The Sermon of the Wolf to the English.
68 Völuspá, Page, p. 209
69 For the argument that Völuspá was inspired by Wulfstan, see Joseph Harris, p. 94
70 Völuspá, Page, p. 210
71 EHD, p. 424
72 Ibid., pp. 416–18.
5 Apocalypse Postponed
1 2 Thessalonians 2.4
2 City of God, 20.19
3 Encomium Emmae, 2.21
4 Glaber, 3.13
5 Matthew 24.2
6 Glaber, 21.3
7 “What we should like most of all to know,” as the great historian of medieval Spain, Richard Fletcher, put it, “is why the bishop was convinced that the relics discovered were those of St. James” (Fletcher 1984, p. 59). One legend claims that he was led to the plain where the body lay buried by a mysterious star; but this is a late tradition, and reflects a heroic attempt to derive the shrine’s name of Santiago de la Compostella from the Latin phrase “campus stellae,” or “plain of the star.” In fact, most scholars now agree that the word “compostella” derives from a diminutive of “compostum,” or “burial place.”
8 The words of Gottschalk, Bishop of Le Puy in the Auvergne, who travelled to Santiago in 951, the first pilgrim to do so that we know of by name.
9 Such, at any rate, was the standard fate of Christian captives brought to Córdoba. See Fierro, p. 107
10 Qur’an 8.12
11 Abd Allah b. Buluggin al-Ziri al-Sanhaji, p. 44
12 Al-Nuwayri. Quoted by Scales, p. 65
13 Qur’an 2.191. “Tumult and oppression” is the translation of the notoriously untranslatable word “fitna,” which can mean chastisement, faction fighting, schism or civil war – and at its most extreme the period of total anarchy that will precede the end of days. The word was used by Muslim historians to describe the fall of the Caliphate of Córdoba, and its aftermath.
14 Ibn Hazm, chapter 23
15 Ibid., chapter 26
16 Ibid., chapter 23
17 From the hadiths collected by Ibn Maja, 2.4086
18 From the hadiths collected by Abu Dawud, 2.421
19 Muqaddasi. Quoted by Peters, p. 237
20 Ibid.
21 The testimony of a Muslim, Ibn al-Athr. Quoted by Canard, p. 18
22 Matthew 12.40
23 Or possibly early 1008: the dating depends on the evidence of a Muslim historian, Ibn al-Qalanisi.
24 Adémar, 3.47. The description derived from the eyewitness account of the Bishop of Périgueux, who had been in Jerusalem at the time, and subsequently related what he had seen to Adémar.