The Spinning Magnet
Page 30
Magnetic Union of Göttingen, 78, 99, 197
magnetism and magnetic fields
and atomic structure, 23–25
and coronal mass ejections, 234
Earth’s magnetic field described, 3–5, 158
and electrical current, 130–31
and electrical fields, 102–3
and electrical motors, 137–38
and Halley’s observations, 74
and hypothetical monopoles, 102
and influence of solar radiation, 233
magic associated with, 38
magnetic coordinate systems, 47–48, 72
magnetic epochs, 12
magnetic flux, 199
and magnetic memory, 50, 177–78
and magnetoreception, 263–67
“magnet” term, 35
observatories of, 78, 81, 83
and scholarly trends in magnetism research, 47–49
source of planetary magnetic fields, 160–61
of the sun, 234, 277
surveys of, 80
See also magnetite (lodestone); magnetosphere; polarity reversals; poles of Earth (magnetic)
magnetite (lodestone)
and advances in magnetic theory, 53–54, 73
atomic structure of, 24
and biological magnetoreception, 265
and clay hut magnetic evidence, 217
and ferrimagnetism, 180
and Gilbert’s magnetic research, 57, 157
history of, 35–39
and maintenance of compasses, 178
and Peregrinus, 42–43
and Torridonian sandstones, 186
magnetometers, 77–78, 218
magnetosphere
and the Carrington event (1859), 244–45
and description of the Earth’s magnetic field, 158
and ionizing radiation, 235
and polarity reversals, 226, 236
and protection from radiation, 234–35
and solar wind, 161, 234
and the Van Allen belts, 232, 235
MAGSAT system, 196–97
mantle
and continental drift, 192
core–mantle boundary, 174, 198–99, 201, 206–7, 209, 217–19
described, 27–28
and Earth’s dynamo, 160, 196, 244
and evidence of polarity reversals, 87
and seismological research, 169, 173–74
and volcanology, 66–67
Marcet, Jane, 134
marine geology, 188–93
Mars (planet), 3, 158, 160–61, 235, 241, 254, 275–76
Mars Odyssey spacecraft, 241
mass extinctions, 214–15, 250–51
Matthews, Drummond, 191
Matuyama, Motonori, 176–77, 183
MAVEN (Mars Atmosphere and Volatile EolutioN), 235
Maxwell, James Clerk, 147–50, 170, 199
Melloni, Macedonio, 49–50, 86, 177
Mendel, Gregor, 114
Meng Chhi Pi Than (Shen), 48
Mercury (planet), 158, 161
Mercury (Roman god), 64–65, 67
Mid-Atlantic Ridge, 189
migration, 66, 264, 266
Milton, John, 67
Miocene period, 177
Mitchell, Nick Michel, 6
moon landings, 269
Morley, Lawrence, 190–91
Mount Fuji, 67
Mount Haruna, 181
Mount Vesuvius, 49
Nagasaki, Japan, 271–72
National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), 196, 200–201, 235–36, 267, 269, 275–76
National Center for Scientific Research, 68–69
National Library of France, 271
National Maritime Museum, 3
National Space Institute, 203
Naturalis Historia (Pliny the Elder), 36
natural selection, 82
Nature, 190–91, 213–14
navigation
and advances in magnetic theory, 54, 73–74
and disruption of biological navigation, 251
and Gilbert’s magnetic research, 157
and magnetic compasses, 38–39
and modeling the magnetic field, 197–98
modern systems, 212, 241
in the natural world, 263–67
and naval power, 2, 80–81
and shifting declination, 72–81
and vulnerability to geomagnetic storms, 260–61
Neanderthals, 63, 193, 252
Néel, Louis, 178, 181
Neolithic settlements, 42
Neptune (planet), 158, 161
Neptunists, 66, 166
neutron release, 272
Newe Attractive, The (pamphlet), 48–49
Newnham College, 170
Newton, Isaac, 17–18, 82, 108, 109
Nicholas I of Russia, 78
nickel, 24, 160
Niels Bohr Institute, 95, 104, 144, 148
Niels Bohr International Academy, 118
Nobel, Matthew, 139
Nobel Prize, 90, 95–96, 178, 252, 270, 271
Nollet, Jean, 116
nonlinearity, 210–11, 222–23, 226
Nørlund, Niels Erik, 171, 173
Norman, Robert, 48–49
northern lights, 1–4. See also auroras
North Pole, South Pole (Turner), 38–39
North Star, 48
Northwest Passage, 2, 81
nuclear fusion, 21
nuclear weapons, 261–62, 271–72
Obama, Barack, 246
ocean gyres, 159
Odyssey, The (Homer), 35
Oldham, Richard Dixon, 165–66, 168, 205
Old Testament, 65–66, 167
Oligocene epoch, 87
Olsen, Nils, 204
Olson, Peter, 213–14
On the Origin of Species (Darwin), 66, 242
Oort cloud, 159
orbitals
and behavior of electrons, 21–24
and Earth’s dynamo, 160, 224–25
and electrical current, 104, 108
and ionizing radiation, 233
and magnetism, 179
and quantum physics, 7
and sun’s dynamo, 161
Orphic Lithica, 38
Ørsted, Anders Sandøe, 99–100, 120–21
Ørsted, Hans Christian
and Earth’s dynamo, 160
and electromagnetic theory, 103, 119, 121–31
and evolution of geophysics, 170
and Faraday’s magnetic laboratory, 145
impact on electromagnetic theory, 96–100
influence on Faraday, 133–34, 136–37, 141–42
Kant’s influence on, 117–19, 121, 124, 131
satellite named for, 200, 207
on unification of physics, 93
university founded by, 203
Ørsted, Mathilde, 97–98
Ørsted Medal, 97
outer core, 3, 27–28, 159–60, 162, 199–200, 205–6, 216–19, 222, 224–25
ozone, 252, 254
Pacific Ring of Fire, 176
Pais, Abraham, 97
paleomagnetism, 32, 187, 226–27
paleontology, 66
Pangaea, 185, 192
Paradise Lost (Milton), 67
Paris Observatory, 80
particle physics, 6, 19
Pascal, Blaise, 14
Pèlerin de Maricourt. See Peregrinus, Petrus
Peregrinus, Petrus
and advances in magnetic theory, 53–54
and Gilbert�
��s research, 56, 58
and origin of modern magnetism, 39–44, 69, 73, 102
Permian period, 250
Phillips, Richard, 136–37
photons, 104
Planet Nine, 159
plasma, 4, 233–34, 240, 242, 245, 255
plastic polymers, 253
plate tectonics, 5, 28, 176, 192–93. See also continents and continental drift
Pliny the Elder, 36
Plutonists, 66
plutonium-239, 273
POGO satellites, 196
polarity reversals
and Brunhes legacy, 12, 14
and continental drift, 190–93
and early magnetic crusades, 83
impact on extinctions and evolution, 214–15, 250–51
lack of consensus on, 213–19
plausible scenarios, 237–38
rate of, 5
and reversed-flux patches, 213–14
and risk calculations, 257–59
seismographic evidence, 174
and the South Atlantic Anomaly, 208–9
theory ridiculed, 47
variety of disrupting events, 262
and volcanic rocks, 181–83
poles of Earth (geographic)
and “apparent polar wander,” 187–88
and changing magnetic field, 212
and declination, 48, 62, 197
and longitude problem, 55–56, 62
and Peregrinus’ travels, 42
and Ross expedition, 2
poles of Earth (magnetic)
and auroras, 242–43
and Chinese culture, 38–39
and the core–mantle boundary, 197–99, 201
and declination change, 71, 75, 212
and dipole decay, 151, 162–63, 201, 203, 206, 209, 215–19, 227
and the Earth’s rotation, 162
and geomagnetism, 3, 53–55
and inclination change, 81
and longitude problem, 62
and Peregrinus’ compass, 42–43
and radiation exposure, 241, 246–47, 277
and Ross expedition, 1–2, 99
and source of magnetic fields, 24
and strength of magnetic fields, 206–7
wandering location of, 187–88, 216
See also polarity reversals
polonium, 271, 272
Pont Farin (Pontfarein), France, 85–88, 149, 156–57, 179, 183, 216
Priestley, Joseph, 114
Probsthein, Sophie, 98, 124
Proceedings of the Imperial Academy, 176
Prometheus myth, 122
Protestantism, 61, 140
protons, 20–21, 101, 233–35
Puy de Dôme volcano, 29–30, 63–69, 231
P waves, 166, 169, 172, 173
quantum physics, 7, 18, 178
quarks, 19
Quaternary period, 177
Quebec, Canada, 240, 245
radar, 148
radiation
and description of the Earth’s magnetic field, 158
detectors, 275–76
exposure to, 251–52, 270, 274
and gyres in the magnetic field, 162–63
hot spots, 254
ionizing, 233, 235, 270, 273
solar, 233, 254, 267, 270
ultraviolet, 252, 254
radioactivity
isotopes, 216
particle emissions, 273
radioactive beryllium, 252
radioactive decay, 18, 21, 51, 271, 272–73
radio waves, 148–49, 262
radium, 271, 272
Réaumur, René Antoine Ferchault de, 111–12
relativity, 90, 102–3
remanent magnetism, 179, 190
Rerum Novarum (papal encyclical), 30
“Reversals of the Earth’s Magnetic Field” (Cox, Doell, and Dalrymple), 182
reverse-flux patches, 206–7, 214, 217
Reynolds number, 222–23, 226
Ritter, Johann Wilhelm, 118
Roberts, Paul, 224
Roman Catholic Church, 60–61
Roman culture, 41, 42, 64–65
Romanticism, 117
Röntgen, Wilhelm, 270
Ross, James Clark, 1–2, 3, 99
Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters, 128
Royal Institution of Great Britain, 133–36, 139–40, 146, 149, 223, 242
Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge, 108–9
Russia, 78, 81
Sabine, Edward, 79–83, 197
SAC-C, 200–201
Sagnotti, Leonardo, 209
SAMPEX (Solar Anomalous and Magnetosphere Particle EXplorer), 237
San Andreas fault zone, 192
Sandemanians, 140
satellites and satellite imagery
and core–mantle boundary, 174
and core modeling, 162
and cost of magnetic disturbances, 260
data and imagery, 91, 162–63, 174, 196
and evolution of magnetic theory, 150–51
and global navigation satellite system (GNSS), 260–61
and global positioning system (GPS), 212, 241
and Halloween magnetic storm of 2003, 241
and magnetic vectors, 196
and military dangers of magnetic disturbances, 262
and Morley, 191
and Ørsted, 100, 200, 207
POGO satellites, 196
Swarm satellites, 162, 201, 204, 207, 211, 237
vulnerability of, 255
Saturn (planet), 158, 161, 241
Science, 182
Scientific American, 197
Scoresbysund seismological station, 171
Scott, Walter, 98, 128
Scripps Institution of Oceanography, 215
Scripps Research Institute, 199
seafloor spreading, 188–91, 193
“Second Coming, The” (Yeats), 153
sedimentary rocks, 216, 218
seismographs, 165–66, 171–72, 188, 192, 205
seismology, 31, 165–74
seismometers, 31, 168
Sellegri, Karine, 68–69
Shelley, Mary, 121–22
Shen Kuo, 48
Shillong Plateau, 165
Siberian Traps, 193
skin cancers, 252
sodium dynamo simulation, 224–27
solar energetic particles
and Carrington-class superstorm (2012), 247
and cost of magnetic disturbances, 257–58, 260
described, 233–35
and impact of weakening magnetic field, 236, 253–54, 255
and space travel, 269, 274
solar flares, 234, 236, 240, 257, 262
solar poles, 162
solar storms, 236, 238, 239–43, 243–47, 255. See also superstorms, electromagnetic
solar wind, 4–5, 158, 234, 236, 249, 251–52, 254
solid core of the Earth, 167–68, 172–73, 200, 205, 235
solidists, 167
Soul in Nature, The (Ørsted), 131
South Atlantic Anomaly, 207–8, 214–17, 237, 260, 277
southern hemisphere, 206. See also South Atlantic Anomaly
spacecraft and space travel, 260–61, 271–72. See also satellites and satellite imagery
SpaceX, 261
special theory of relativity, 149
standard model of physics, 148
static electricity
and electromagnetic fields, 145
and electromagnetic theory, 103–4
and exper
iments to isolate electricity, 107–11
and Galvani’s experiments, 122–25
and Gilbert’s magnetic research, 59
and lightning, 115
and Shelley’s Frankenstein, 122
and Van Allen belts, 260
STEREO-A (Solar TErrestrial RElations Observatory), 245
strong nuclear force, 17–18
sunspots, 162
sun worship, 276
superchrons, 250–51
supernovas, 235
superstorms, electromagnetic, 241–47. See also Carrington event (1859); Halloween magnetic storm (2003)
Swarm satellites, 162, 201, 204, 207, 211, 237
S waves, 166, 169
Tarduno, John, 217
Tasmania, 2
Technical University of Denmark, 203
technology and technological vulnerabilities, 227, 239–40, 255, 257–62
Teilhard de Chardin, Pierre, 13–14
telegraph system, 242
telephone system, 260–61
telescopes, 142
telluric currents, 244, 255, 258, 260
Temple of Mercury, 67
terracottas
and advances in magnetic theory, 50–52
and Brunhes’s Pont Farin excavations, 13, 85–86, 88–90, 149, 157
and evolution of geophysics, 166, 176
and retention of magnetic polarity, 24
and strength of Earth’s magnetic field, 198
and volcanic rocks, 181, 183
terrellae, 57, 157
Thales of Miletus, 36–39, 107
Tharp, Marie, 189
Thatcher, Margaret, 139
theology, 7, 60, 64–69, 167
theoretical physics, 6, 118
theoretical systemics, 217
Theory of Force (Ørsted), 128
thermal electricity, 145
Thompson, J. J., 90, 168
thorium-234, 272–73
Thorne, Kip, 118
three-body problem, 211
Time, 187, 232
tipping points, 254–55
tissue-equivalent plastic, 275–76
Torridonian sandstones, 186–87
transformers, electrical, 143–44, 240, 255
turbulence, 222
Turner, Gillian, 38–39
Turok, Neil, 148
Uffen, Robert, 249–50
UK Space Agency, 260
ultra-low-frequency waves, 148
Université Blaise Pascal, 31
University of Cambridge, 170
University of Colorado, Boulder, 231–32, 237
University of Copenhagen, 124, 171
University of Maryland, 221
University of Paris (the Sorbonne), 41, 47
University of Rochester, 217
Uranus (planet), 158, 161
Ursa Major constellation, 39
Ursa Minor constellation, 36
US Air Force Strategic Air Command, 261–62
US Congress, 253