Is There a Middle East?
Page 39
De Gaulle, Charles, 102–3
Democracy movements, 2, 6–7, 111, 236
Dependency school, 196–97
Desertification: climate and, 170–75
colonialism and, 186–87
the Levant and, 181–86
the Maghrib and, 175–80
Oxus River and, 145
Dhahabi, al-, 15
Dickins, Victor, 25–26
Dinawari, al-, 14
Dirckinck-Holmfeld, Constant, 18
Disconnectedness, Middle East exceptionalism and, 220–23
Disraeli, Benjamin, 129
Diversity, of Middle Eastern populations, 55
Diyarbıkr, 156–59
Donop, Georg, 18
Drysdale, Alasdair, 76, 77, 78
Dubai, 187
Durrani dynasty, 148
Duruy, Victor, 12
Dyer, Henry, 26
East and West: East/West civilization divisions, 22–23, 25–26, 34–35, 85
Muslim geography and, 15–16
East Asia, 155
Eastern Europe, 11–12, 17–18, 20, 26, 30–31
Eastern Mediterranean, 18, 86
“Eastern Question”: 19th-century Western European conception of, 32–35
British and U.S. terminology, 37–41
conceptualizing the Middle East and, 11–13, 232, 248n94
conceptualizing the Near East, Middle East, and Orient, 28–29
conceptualizing the Near East and, 18–23
maps, 28, 30–31;
the modern Middle East and, 23–28
the Orient and, 16–18
Ottoman Empire and, 13–14
premodern Islamic geography, 14–16
press coverage and, 33
sick man metaphor, 248n96
East/West dichotomy, sacred geography and, 119–21, 137
Ecological trilogy, 98
Economic development: “basic needs” model and, 200–203
civic order and, 237–38
environmental conditions and, 187
globalization and, 212–13, 214–15
Iraq War and, 225, 226
New International Economic Order (NIEO) and, 196–200
post-World War II period, 191–96
since the 1980s, 203–6
Turkey and, 272n53
Economic nationalism, 191–96, 200, 203
Educational systems, the Maghrib and, 107–8
Egypt: atlases and maps, 87
Cold War and, 49
defining the “Middle East” and, 4, 5, 86, 238
“Eastern Question” and, 12–13
economic development and, 192, 205
environmental conditions and, 186, 187
France and, 37
Great Britain and, 53
postwar economic policies and, 195–96
Suez crisis of 1956, 51–52
United States and, 54
World War II and, 44, 45, 46
“Egypt and the Lower Nile Basin,” 80
Eickelman, Dale, 96, 97
Eisenhower Doctrine, 48
Eliot, Charles, 26
Embedded liberalism, 193–94, 202
“Empire States,” 82
Employment, economic development and, 203–4
Encyclopaedia Britannica World Atlas, 87
English, Paul Ward, 82–83, 98, 252n54
Environmental conditions: climate changes and desertification, 170–75, 181–86
defining the “Middle East” and, 67–68, 96, 231–32
the Levant and, 181–86
the Maghrib and, 175–80
Middle East/Central Asia boundary and, 141–42, 151
Oxus River and, 142–43, 145
Eothen (Kinglake), 129
Escobar, Arturo, 194–95
Ethnic identity, 154, 162, 163, 167–68, 235–36
Ethnocentrism, 129–30, 131–36
Ethnolinguistic groups, 98, 111–13, 121, 256n7
Eurasian steppes, 139–51
Eurocentrism: defining the “Middle East” and, 32, 34, 84, 232, 240
environmental narratives and, 170–87
the Holy Land and, 122
Orientalism and, 119–21, 123
Euro-Mediterranean Free Trade Area, 205
Europe. See Eastern Europe; Western Europe
European pilgrims, 128–30
European Union, 232
Exceptionalism. See American exceptionalism; Middle East exceptionalism
Ezekiel, 127
Fabri, Felix, 126
Faisal I (Iraq), 43
Far East, 4
“Eastern Question” and, 17–18
Great Britain and, 37–38
Islamicate Eurasia and, 155
Muslim geography and, 15
Faridun Khan, 260n30
Fashoda Incident (1898), 254n8
Fergany, Nader, 228
Fisher, W.B., 66–68
Flaubert, Gustave, 127, 129, 257n32
“Fords of the Jordan” (Calcott), 172
Foreign aid, 200–201, 203
Foreign exchange rates, 196, 198
Foreign policy, 102–3, 106–7
Forestry Ordinance (1926), 183
Former Soviet republics in Central Asia, 51
“Forward strategy of freedom,” 224–26
Fossil pollen, 172, 176
France: “Eastern Question” and, 12–13
Egypt and, 37
immigration and, 255n29, 255n30
the Maghrib and, 175–81
Maghribi immigrants and, 111–12
Western economic structures and, 192
World War II and, 45
Franzos, Karl, 17
French language, the Maghrib and, 109, 115
French terminology and usage: defining the “Middle East” and, 233
early usage of “Middle East” and, 23–24
the Maghrib and, 114–15
the Orient and, 246n55
post-World War II period, 102–4
Friedman, Thomas, 216–20, 224
Gender, of “Middle Easterners,” 108–9
General Agreement of Tariffs and Trade (GATT), 196
Geographical History of the Turkmen (Bahadur Khan), 145
Geographic texts. See Atlases and maps
Geography and geographers, 1, 11, 56
atlases and maps, 84–92
defining the “Middle East” and, 56, 62–78, 92, 94, 96, 98–99
Middle East as a cultural region, 78–84
the “Near East” and, 18–23
the “Nearer East” and, 20, 22
physical geography, 68, 70, 76, 159–60, 233, 240, 251n38
regional geography, 57–62. See also Maps
Geography of the World’s Major Regions (Cole), 84
Geography: Realms, Regions, and Concepts (de Blij and Muller), 80, 81, 82, 94, 96
Geologic time, environmental conditions and, 172–73
Geopolitical identity: 20th-century usage, 36–37
ancient Greece and, 120–21
Central Asia and, 139–40
defining the “Middle East” and, 74, 76, 77, 78, 92, 94, 233, 240
fluidity of regional boundaries and, 99
indigenous usages of “Middle East” and, 35
Islamicate Eurasia, 152–69
Islamic empires and, 2–3
the Maghrib and, 104, 105–6, 110–11
Middle East and, 1–2, 11
Middle East exceptionalism and, 210–13
modern Middle East and, 53
the “Near East” and, 19
Ottoman Empire and, 13–14
regional geography and, 58
settlement names and, 157–58, 159
Geopolitical imaginaries, 208–10, 215–16, 237
George, David Lloyd, 42
German terminology and usage, 18, 24
Germany, the Persian Gulf and, 39
Ginsberg, Norton, 63–64, 65, 66
Globalization: geopolitical dis
connection and, 221–23
Middle East exceptionalism, 207–8, 210, 217–20, 237
New International Economic Order (NIEO) and, 200
post-9/U.S. foreign policy and, 216–17
Thomas Friedman and, 213–15
United States and, 212
Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, 24
Gold reserves, 198
Goldsmid, Frederic, 148
Goode’s World Atlas (Rand McNally), 86
Gordon, Thomas, 23, 24
Graves, Mortimer, 61
Great Britain: Cold War and, 53
Egypt and, 12–13
Islamicate Eurasia and, 168
the Maghrib and, 102
Middle East/Central Asia boundary and, 140, 148
pre-World War I period, 37–41
Russia and, 39–40
World War I and World War II, 41–47. See also British terminology and usage
Greater Middle East Partnership Initiative (GMEPI), 11, 226–27
Great Game, 39–40, 140
The Great Game (Hopkins), 140
Greece, 48, 120–21
Gregory, Derek, 209
Group of 77, 197–98
“Guarded domains,” Islamic empires and, 2–3
Gulf War (1991), 52
Hajj, the, 126
Hakim al-Mamalik, ‘Ali Naqi Khan, 149
Halpern, Manfred, 270n14
Hammer-Purgstall, Joseph von, 19
Hammond International maps, 92
Hart, Albert, 27
Hartshorne, Richard, 61
Hay, Denys, 121
Hegel, Friedrich, 16–17
Held, Colbert C., 70, 73–74, 76
Helmand River, 148
Hepner, George F., 84
Herding and grazing, 171, 182. See also Nomadic pastoralists
Herodotus, 121
Herter, Christian, 101–2
“Heuristic World Regionalization Scheme” (Lewis and Wigen), 94, 95
Hillalian invasion, 177, 178–79
Hiraz, 158
Historical Map of the Eastern Question, 28, 30–31
Historical ruins, 172, 173, 178
“Hither Asia,” 17, 18, 21
Hitti, Philip K., 61
Hodgson, Marshall, 2, 139–40, 262n1
Hogarth, David George, 22, 38
Holdich, Thomas, 26
Holy Land: Christian apocalyptic literature and, 16
defining the “Middle East” and, 239
East/West dichotomy and, 119–21
European pilgrims and, 128–30
The Land and the Book (Thomson) and, 130–36
modern Middle East and, 136–38
origins of the “Holy Land” and, 124–27
secular Orient and, 121–23
travel literature and, 256–57n22
Honorifics and titles, Islamicate Eurasia and, 164
Hopkins, Frank S., 61
Hoskins, Halford L., 61
Hugli, 158
Human rights, 218
Hungary, “Eastern Question” and, 17
Hussein, Saddam, 136–37
Iberian Peninsula, 5, 16
Ibn al-Jawzi, 14–15
Ibn al-Wardi, 15, 16
Ibn Khaldoun, 177
Ibn Khaldun, 16
Ibn Khurradadhbih, 15
Illiteracy, 107–8, 254n21
Imagining the Balkans (Todorova), 276n1
Immigration: France and, 255n29, 255n30
maghrébins (Maghribi immigrants), 111–12, 255n29
West African immigrants, 112
Independence, North African nation-states and, 105–9, 195–96
Indexed Atlas of the World (Rand McNally), 85
India: atlases and maps, 86
defining the “Middle East” and, 24, 32, 86
“Eastern Question” and, 16, 37–38, 39
Islamicate Eurasia and, 152, 153, 159
modern Middle East and, 26
Russia and, 37
Indigenous terminology and usage: defining the “Middle East” and, 35, 238–39
environmental conditions and, 187
Islamicate Eurasia, 152–54, 166–69
the Maghrib and, 100–116, 236
Middle East / Central Asia boundary and, 141
Near East, Middle East, and Orient, 28–29
premodern Muslim geography, 14–16
Infrastructure development, 194, 195
Inland settlements, Islamicate Eurasia and, 155–59
The Innocents Abroad (Twain), 129
Intellectual discourse: defining the “Middle East” and, 115–16
Maghribi nationalism and, 109–11
Interdependence, economic development and, 199–200
International Monetary Fund, 193, 194, 197, 205
International relations theory, 211–12
Iran: Cold War and, 48, 49–50
cultural connections and, 5
defining the “Middle East” and, 1, 4, 73, 78, 86
historical divisions and, 6
Iranian Revolution (1979) and, 50
Middle East / Central Asia boundary and, 140, 142, 146–51, 239
North African nation-states and, 107
United States and, 50, 52, 54
World War II and, 46. See also Persia
Iranian plateau, defining the “Middle East” and, 139–40
Iraq: al-Iraq, 14–15
environmental conditions and, 186
Great Britain and, 42–43, 53
Islamicate Eurasia and, 153
legitimacy of rulers and, 160
Middle East exceptionalism and, 228–29
Iraq and the Heart of the Middle East (map), 92
Iraq War, 218, 219–26
Irrigation, 186
Isfahan, 156–59
Islam: Christian missionaries and, 133
Christian travel literature and, 129, 131
defining the “Middle East” and, 233, 234–35, 238
the Holy Land and, 122, 123
Jerusalem and, 256n20
Middle East/Central Asia boundary and, 140
sacred geography and, 137, 138
settlement names and, 158
Islamicate civilization, 139
Islamicate Eurasia: defining the “Middle East” and, 156, 239, 262n1
indigenous geographical usages, 152–54, 166–69
personal identity and, 162–66, 163–65
places, 154–59, 157
political power and, 159–62
tolerance, pragmatism and trust and, 265n48
Western Europeans and, 264n35
Islamic countries: defining the “Middle East” and, 37, 78, 98
geographical identity of, 14–16
geopolitical identity and, 2–4
Maghribi nationalism and, 110
North Africa/Southwest Asia Realm, 80, 82
Islamic extremism, 7
Isma’il I, Shah, 140, 146
Israel: Arab-Israeli conflict, 51–52, 102, 214
Cold War and, 49
environmental conditions and, 184–86
historical divisions and cultural context, 6
U.S. arms supplies and, 54
Italian terminology and usage, 18, 24
Italy, World War II and, 45
I’timad al-Saltana, Muhammad Hasan Khan Sani’ al-Dawla, 145, 150–51, 262n44
Itinerarium Burdigalense, 128
James, Preston, 61
Japan, 29
Jerusalem: Ezekiel and, 127
Islam and, 256n20
religious faith and, 258n46
sacred geography and, 123, 124, 138, 244n17, 256n14
Judaism, 122, 123, 133, 137, 138
Kanne, Johann, 18
Keddie, Nikki, 98, 238
Keohane, Robert O., 217
Khurasan, 146, 149, 150–51
Khvandamir, Ghiyath al-Din, 146
Kinglake, Alexander, 17, 129
Kissinger, Henry, 201
Knox,
Paul, 57–58, 79
Kramer, Martin, 252n52
Kuwait, 203
Labor activism, 206
Laffitte, Pierre, 24
Lakshadweep, 159, 263n22
Lamport, W. J., 20
The Land and the Book (Thomson), 125–26, 130–36, 138
Land reforms, postwar economic policies and, 195
Land tenure laws, 180
Land use laws, 179–80, 182, 183, 232
Revival of the Eastern Question, 33
Lashkar, Mirza Qahraman Amin, 261n43
Latin American Studies Association, 60
Lawrence, T. E., 173
Le Maghreb entre deux guerres (Berque), 104
Le Maroc et le monde Arabe (Filali), 255n27
L’Étoile Nord Africaine (North African Star), 110
Levant, the: defining the “Middle East” and, 24, 32, 37
environmental conditions, 174–75, 181–86
Lewis, Bernard, 127
Lewis, Martin, 58, 60–61, 94, 140
The Lexus and the Olive Tree (Friedman), 213
Libya, 86, 253n1
Linguistics: area studies and, 62
defining the “Middle East” and, 235;
ethnolinguistic groups, 98
Indus Valley and, 16
Yemen and, 256n7
Littoral settlements, Islamicate Eurasia and, 155–59
Liverman, Diana, 57–58, 79
Lowdermilk, Walter, 184–85
Ludlow, James M., 24
Lyell, Charles, 173
Mackinder, Halford, 39–40
“Maghreb and Its Neighbors,” 82
Maghrébins (Maghribi immigrants), 111–12, 255n29
Maghrib, the: colonial era, 101–5
defined, 253n1
environmental conditions, 175–80, 266n12
ethnolinguistic groups and, 111–13
independent nation-states and, 105–9
nationalism and, 109–11
self-identification and, 100–101, 113–16. See also North Africa
Maghribi terminology and usage: al-Sharq al-Awsat (Middle East), 116
Berber people and, 113
Middle Easterners, 100–101, 102, 106–9, 236
Mahan, Alfred T., 23, 24–25, 38–39, 101, 210, 211
Malabar, 153, 155–56
Malay Peninsula, 17
Malta, 17
Man and the Mediterranean Forest (Thirgood), 265n5
Mandeville, Sir John, 128–29, 257n29
Map Link maps, 92
Maps: defining the “Middle East” and, 64, 65, 66, 69, 70, 71, 72, 74, 75, 77
Eastern Europe and Middle East, 30–31
“Eastern Question” and, 28, 30–31;
geopolitical disconnection and, 222
Islamicate Eurasia and, 156
Oxus River, 143, 144;
Southwest Asia, 64, 65, 92
world cultural regions, 59. See also Atlases and maps
Marriott, John, 12
Marston, Sallie, 57–58, 79
Mashad, 151
Mashriq (the East), 15
Mashriqis (eastern Mediterranean Arabs), 112, 113–14
Matla’ al-Shams (I’timad al-Saltana), 150–51, 262n44