by Bonine, Michael E. ; Amanat, Abbas; Gasper, Michael Ezekiel
Mauritania, 91, 253n1
McKee, Jesse O., 84
Meadow, Thomas, 19
Mecca, 124
Melman, Billy, 128
Mental maps: Islamicate Eurasia and, 159, 168
Middle East exceptionalism and, 208–9, 237
Merchant classes, Islamicate Eurasia and, 152–54, 165–66, 168–69
Mes’udi, al-, 14
“Middle East”: 19th-century Western European conception of, 11–13, 23–28
20th-century usage, 32, 34–35
early usage of, 1
emergence of modern term, 23–28
geographical boundaries of, 3–4
Middle East / Central Asia boundary and, 139–51
North Africa/Southwest Asia Realm, 82
as origin of European civilization, 16
Middle East, Near East, and Orient, 28–29
Middle East Abstracts, 51
The Middle East: A Geographical Study (Beaumont, Blake, and Wagstaff), 68–70, 72, 73
The Middle East: An Anthropological Approach (Eickelman), 96
The Middle East and Central Asia: An Anthropological Approach (Eickelman), 96, 97
The Middle East—An Indefinable Region (Pearcy), 73, 75
“Middle East and North Africa,” 76, 77, 78, 79, 83, 99
The Middle East and North Africa (Europa), 68
The Middle East and North Africa: A Political Geography (Drysdale and Blake), 78
The Middle East: A Physical, Social and Regional Geography (Fisher), 66–68
Middle East/Central Asia boundary, 139–51, 239, 259n2
Middle Easterners, 100–101, 102, 106–9, 111–12, 114, 236
The Middle Eastern Question (Chirol), 25
Middle East exceptionalism: defining the “Middle East” and, 207–10, 236–37
geopolitical disconnection and, 220–23
geopolitical identity and, 210–13
globalization and, 217–20
Greater Middle East Partnership and, 226–30
Iraq War and, 224–26
popularization of, 213–15
post-9/11 U.S. foreign policy and, 215–17
terrorism and, 215–17
The Middle East: Geography and Geopolitics (Anderson), 252n46
Middle East Institute, 47, 101–2
Middle East Partnership Initiative (MEPI), 225
Middle East Patterns (Held and Cummings), 70, 73–74, 76, 251n38
Middle East/South Asia. See Islamicate Eurasia
Middle East studies, 1
Middle East Studies Association of North American (MESA), 49, 60, 62, 250n28
Middle East Supply Center, 192
Middle East Warriors, 114
“Middle of the earth,” Muslim geography and, 14–15
“Middle Orient,” 24
Miller, James A., 83, 252n54
Missionaries, 131–36, 138, 258n47
Mitchell, Lucy, 19
Modernization theory, 228–29
Monetary policy, U.S., 201–3
Montagne, Robert, 102–3
Morey, William, 24
Morocco, 78, 83, 104, 110–11, 178, 180
Morrison, John A., 61
Mouterde, Paul, 184
Moyen-Orient (Middle East), 101, 104
Moyen-orientaux (Middle Easterner), 102, 109, 113
Moynihan, Daniel Patrick, 201
Muasher, Marwan, 228
Mughal Empire, 2–3
Muhammad Reza Pahlavi (Shah of Iran), 46, 50
Muhammad Shaybani, 146
Muir, William, 131, 258n40
Muller, Peter O., 80, 81, 82, 94, 96
Muqaddasi, al-, 145
Muslim geography: defining the “Middle East” and, 238–39
Middle East/Central Asia boundary and, 141
Muslim Spain, 16
Oxus River and, 144, 259–60n11, 260n30. See also Indigenous terminology and usage
Mustafa, Sayyid, 152, 155–56
Myanmar, 86
The Myth of Continents (Lewis and Wigen), 58, 94, 95, 140
Nasir al-Din Shah, 149–50, 261n42
Nasser, Gamal Abdel, 195–96
National and cultural divisions, 5–6, 13–14
National economic planning, 194–96, 203
National Geographic Atlas of the Middle East, 87, 88, 89
National Geographic Atlas of the World, 86–87
National Geographic Society, 92
National identities, Maghribi terminology and usage, 113–14
Nationalism: Berber people and, 112–13
defining the “Middle East” and, 234, 236
economic development and, 238
historical divisions and cultural context, 6
the Maghrib and, 103, 104–5, 109–11
postwar economic policies and, 191–96
terms of self-identification and, 29
Nation-states: former Ottoman Empire and, 3–4
the Maghrib and, 105–9, 110–11
pre-World War I period, 41
regional geography and, 57, 58
Nature in Mediterranean Europe (Grove and Rackham), 265n5
Naval power, 38–39, 40, 210
Near East: 19th-century Western European conception of, 18–23, 34–35
area studies and, 61–62
atlases and maps, 85
defining the “Middle East” and, 4, 63
“Eastern Question” and, 17–18, 27
French terminology and usage, 102, 103
Great Britain and, 37–38
the modern Middle East and, 25–26
World War II and, 46
“Near East, Middle East, and Orient,” 28–29
“Nearer East,” 20, 21–22, 25, 38, 248n94
“Near Orient,” 19, 20, 122
The New International Atlas (Rand McNally), 86
New International Economic Order (NIEO), 196–200, 238
News media: Cold War and, 49
Greater Middle East Partnership Initiative (GMEPI), 227–28
the Maghrib and, 105, 108, 114, 255n32
Middle Eastern viewers and, 54
Middle East exceptionalism and, 213–15
oil wars and, 52–53
World War II and, 47
Nijim, Basheer K., 84
Nixon, Richard, 52
Nixon shock, 198
Nomadic pastoralists, 180
environmental conditions and, 171, 176
the Levant and, 182, 183–84
the Maghrib and, 176, 177–80
sedentarization of, 267n22
Nonaligned movement, 197, 255n26
North Africa: British and U.S. terminology, 36
Cambridge Atlas of the Middle East and North Africa (Blake, Dewdney and Mitchell), 90–91, 91
cultural connections and, 5
defining the “Middle East” and, 3, 68, 73, 76, 77, 78, 83, 233
Muslim geography and, 16
National Geographic Atlas of the Middle East, 87
self-identification and, 29, 100–116
World War II and, 45. See also Maghrib, the
North Africa/Southwest Asia Realm, 80, 81, 82, 94, 96, 98–99
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), 48
Northern Highlands, 83
North-South polarization, 197
Occupations, Islamicate Eurasia and, 164
Oil shock (1973–1974), 198, 199
Oil supplies: Cold War and, 212
defining the “Middle East” and, 98
geopolitical disconnection and, 223
globalization and, 214–15
Great Britain and, 40
oil shock (1973–1974), 198, 199
oil wars and, 50–54
World War II, 43–44, 45–46
On the Origin of the Species (Darwin), 173
Organization of African Unity (OAU), 255n26
Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries (OAPEC), 50–51
Organization of th
e Islamic Conference, 255n26
Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), 2, 50–51, 198, 199, 203
Orient: 19th-century Western European conception of, 16–18
ancient Greece and, 120–21
Middle East and, 4
terms of self-identification and, 29
Western European concept of the “Near East” and, 20
“Orient, Near East, and Middle East,” 28–29
Orientalism: Christian travel literature and, 131–36
defining the “Middle East” and, 32, 210–11
Edward Said and, 122, 123
the Holy Land and, 119–21, 239
sacred geography and, 137, 138
Orientalism (Said), 119–20, 129, 131
Orosius, 23
“Other,” defining, 113, 121
Ottoman Empire: 19th-century Western European conception of, 13–14
defining the “Middle East” and, 32, 238
“Eastern Question” and, 12, 27–28, 37, 232
environmental conditions in the Levant and, 182
geopolitical identity and, 2–3
historical divisions and cultural context, 6
legitimacy of rulers and, 160
nation-states created from, 3–4
self-identification and, 28–29
sick man metaphor, 248n96
Western economic structures and, 192
Western European concept of the “Near East” and, 19, 20
World War I and, 41
Ottoman tree tax, 182
Oxus River: defining the “Middle East” and, 139
map of, 144;
Middle East/Central Asia boundary and, 141–43, 145, 151
Persian travel narratives, 150
Pakistan: atlases and maps, 86, 87, 92
defining the “Middle East” and, 86, 92, 94, 98
U.S. terminology and usage, 51
Palestine: defining the Holy Land and, 127
environmental conditions and, 181–82
historical divisions and cultural context, 6
North African nation-states and, 106
travel literature and, 128–29
World War II, 44
Palestine, Land of Promise (Lowdermilk), 184–85
Palestine Exploration Fund (PEF), 181–82
Palmer, Edward, 182
Pamir Mountains, 142
Pan-Arabism, 6, 103, 104, 109
Pan-Islamic movement, 25, 103, 112
The Pattern of Asia (Ginsberg), 63–64, 65, 66
Pearcy, G. Etzel, 73, 75
Peel Report, 183
Persia: defining the “Middle East” and, 3, 4, 24, 238
the “Nearer East” and, 21
Oxus River and, 141, 144;
Western economic structures and, 192
Western European concept of the “Near East” and, 20. See also Iran
Persian Gulf, 38–39, 50–51
Persian Gulf states, 50–51, 54
Personal identity, 162–66, 264n36, 264n37
Philippines, 17
Physical geography: defining the “Middle East” and, 68, 70, 76, 233, 240
Islamicate Eurasia and, 159–60
Middle East Patterns (Held and Cummings), 251n38
Pilgrims, the Holy Land and, 125–26, 127, 128–36, 138
Plurality, Islamicate Eurasia and, 167–68
Point Four Program, 194–95
Political agendas, of Western states, 55
Political elites, 168, 221, 223
Political freedom indicators, 218–19
Political identity, 19, 159–62, 236
Political opposition, the Maghrib and, 112
Poverty, economic development and, 200–201
Powell, Colin, 225
Prebisch, Raul, 196–97
Principles of Geology (Lyell), 173
Problems of the Far East (Curzon), 24
Pulsipher, Lydia Milhelic, 84
Qajar dynasty, 142, 147–48, 149–51
Qaragazlu, ‘Abdallah Khan, 148
Qara Qum desert, 141–42, 145, 146–47, 151
Quick Reference World Atlas (Rand McNally), 86
Racial concepts, the Orient and, 16–17
Rand McNally atlases, 85, 86
Reagan, Ronald, 52
Realms: defining the “Middle East” and, 94, 96
Southwestern Realm and, 63
world cultural regions, 80, 81, 82
Regional geography, 56, 57–62
in atlases and maps, 84–85, 95
Middle East Patterns (Held and Cummings), 251n38
world cultural regions, 78–84
Réglements des Forêts (1870), 182
Reifenberg, Adolf, 185
Reinaud, M., 23
Relational identity, 162, 163
Religion: the Holy Land and, 137
personal identity and, 162, 163
sacred geography and, 124–27
settlement names and, 158
Remittances, 203–4
Renan, Ernest, 127
Rice, Condoleezza, 229
Rogers, Daniel, 208, 214
Roman Empire, 177, 178–79, 266n12
Romm, James, 121
Rommel, Erwin, 45
Rosen, Georg, 18
Rosen, Steve, 185–86
Rostow, W. W., 196
Royal Geographical Society, 43, 148–49
Rulers, legitimacy of, 160
Rumohr, Carl von, 18
Russell, Michael, 127
Russia: Great Britain and, 39–40
India and, 37
Islamicate Eurasia and, 168
Middle East/Central Asia boundary and, 140, 148
World War II and, 45–46. See also Soviet Union
Russo-Afghanistan Boundary Commission, 148
Russo-Japanese War (1905), 29, 37
Russo-Persian boundary commission (1881), 148
Russo-Turkish War (1877–78), 20
Ruznama-yi Safar-i Khurasan (Hakim al-Mamalik), 149
Rycout, Paul, 19
Sacred geography: East/West dichotomy and, 119–21
European pilgrims and, 128–30
Jerusalem and, 244n17, 256n14
The Land and the Book (Thomson), 130–36
modern Middle East and, 136–38
origins of the “Holy Land,” 124–27
a secular Orient and, 121–23
Safarnama-yi Khurasan (Nasir al-Din Shah), 150, 261n42
Safavid dynasty, 2–3, 140, 142, 144, 146–47
Sahara desert, 173
Said, Edward: Christian travel literature and, 129
the Holy Land and, 122
Middle East exceptionalism and, 209
Orientalism and, 119–21, 123, 211, 239
pilgrims and, 128
sacred geography and, 137, 256n10
William Muir and, 258n40
Salafi movements, 6
Samahah, Joseph, 227
Sarina (Armenian woman), 152
Sarykamysh depression, 142, 143
Saudi Arabia, 6, 54, 86, 203
Scripture, sacred geography and, 123, 125, 137–38
Secularization, terms of self-identification and, 29
Secular Orient, the, 121–23
Self-identification: the Holy Land and, 119–20
the Maghrib and, 100–116
Ottoman Empire and, 28–29. See also Indigenous terminology and usage
September 11 terror attacks, 210, 215–17
Settlement names, 156–59, 263n11
Seymour, Charles, 26
Shahnama (Persian epic), 141
Shajara-yi Tarakima (Bahadur), 145
Sharia law, 264n30
Sharq awsatiyun (Middle Easterner), 102, 109, 114
Shaybanid dynasty, 140, 146
Shepherds Ordinance (1946), 183–84
Shi’i Islam, 140
Sick man metaphor, Ottoman Empire and, 248n96
Silk Road, 140
Slave
ry, 147, 261n31
Slavic Studies Association, 60
Smithsonian Institution, 60
Socialism, 206
Social markers of identity, 162–63, 164
Social sites, of Middle Eastern character, 100
Sophronius, 256n14
Sorel, Albert, 12
Southeast Asia, Islamicate Eurasia and, 155
Southwest Asia: atlases and maps, 86, 87
defining the “Middle East” and, 63–64, 65, 66, 73, 252n52
regional geography and, 58
South-West Asia (Brice), 68, 69
“Southwest Asia and North Africa,” 84, 94
Southwestern Realm, 63
Sovereignty, 161–62, 167, 197–98
Soviet Union, 47–50. See also Russia
Spanish Sahara, 83
Speiser, Ephraim, 61
Spirituality, the Holy Land and, 126–27, 137
Sri Lanka, 159
Standards of living, economic development and, 204–5
Stanley, Hiram, 24
Steed, Henry, 26
Steppes. See Eurasian steppes
Stereotyping, 34–35, 236–37
The Struggle Between the Desert and the Sown (Reifenberg), 185
Subjecthood, Islamicate Eurasia and, 264n36
Sub-Saharan Africa, 155
Sudan: atlases and maps, 87, 90
defining the “Middle East” and, 66–67, 69, 73, 84, 86
ethnolinguistic groups and, 235–36
Muslim geography and, 15
Suez Canal, 38–39, 40, 49, 51–52
Sunni Islam, 140
Survival on Land and Sea (Smithsonian Institution), 60
Suyuti, al-, 244n17
SWANA (Southwest Asia and North Africa), 84
Symbolism, the Holy Land and, 125–26
Ta’ifa (people), 165
Tarikh-i Habib al-Siyar (Khavandamir), 146
Technological innovation, globalization and, 213–14
Tenca, Carlo, 18
Tennent, James, 21
“Terms of trade” problems, 196–97
Territoriality demarcated units, 161
Terrorism, 36, 53, 215–17, 219–20, 224–26
Textbooks, 60, 62–84, 107
“Third World,” 49, 110, 193–94
Thomas, Lewis V., 61
Thomson, William M., 125–26, 130–36, 138
Tibet, 86
The Times Atlas of the World, 87
Timurid dynasty, 146
Todorova, Maria, 276n1
Tolerance, pragmatism and trust, 167,
Toponym qualifiers, settlement names and, 156–59, 263n11
Townshend, Frederick, 19
Toynbee, Arnold J., 26, 32
Trade and commerce: Islamicate Eurasia and, 152–55, 166–69, 239, 265n48
postwar economic policies and, 194
Third World countries and, 196–97
Western Europeans and, 264n35
Transition zones, world cultural regions, 96
Transportation: globalization and, 217
Islamicate Eurasia and, 154–55, 166–67
