55. Léon and Maurice Bonneff, La vie tragique des travailleurs, EDI, Paris 1984, first published 1908, p. 16.
56. Ibid, p. 21.
57. Ibid, p. 31.
58. Jennifer Davis, ‘From “Rookeries” to “Communities”: Race, Poverty and Policing in London, 1850–1985’, History Workshop Journal, vol. 27, no. 1, 1989, pp. 68–9.
59. Maud Pember Reeves, Round About a Pound a Week, G. Bell and Sons, London 1913, p. 145.
60. Ibid, pp. 113–31.
61. Maurice Lévy-Leboyer and François Bourguignon, L’économie française au XIXe siècle, Economica, Paris 1985, pp. 24–5.
62. Claire Leymonerie, ‘Le Salon des arts ménagers dans les années 1950’, Vingtième siècle, no. 91, July–September 2006, p. 45; Paul-Henry Chombart de Lauwe, La vie quotidienne des familles ouvrières, CNRS, Paris 1977 (first published 1956), p. 75.
63. Allen, The British Industrial Revolution in Global Perspective, p. 33.
64. Friedrich Engels, The Condition of the Working Class in England, Oxford University Press 1993, p. 84.
65. Louis René Villermé, Tableau de l’état physique et moral des ouvriers employés dans les manufactures de coton, de laine et de soie, ed. Yves Tyl, UGE, Collection 10/18, Paris 1971, p. 314: http://classiques.uqac.ca/classiques/villerme_louis_rene/tableau_etat_physique_moral/villerme_tableau_ouvriers.pdf
66. Engels, The Condition of the Working Class, pp. 107–8.
67. Eugène Buret, De la misère des classes laborieuses en Angleterre et en France, vol. 1, Paulin, Paris 1840, p. 135.
68. Ibid, pp. 317–18.
69. Ibid, pp. 326, 340.
70. Ibid, p. 82; see comments in Karl Marx, Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844, Progress Publishers, Moscow 1967, p. 48.
71. Buret, De la misère des classes laborieuses, vol. 2, p. 27.
72. J. Mordaunt Crook, The Rise of the Nouveaux Riches, John Murray, London 1999, p. 62.
73. William J. Fishman, ‘The Condition of East End Jewry in 1888’, West Central Lecture 1986, delivered at University College London, 24 June 1986, p. 6.
74. Hippolyte Taine, Notes sur l’Angleterre, 11th ed., Hachette, Paris 1899, p. 9.
75. Ibid, p. 39.
76. Édouard Ducpétiaux, De la condition des ouvriers mineurs dans la Grande-Bretagne et en Belgique, Van-dooren frères, Brussels 1843, p. 54.
77. Villermé, Tableau de l’état physique et moral des ouvriers, p. 176.
78. Jérôme Bourdieu and Bénédicte Reynaud, ‘Factory Discipline and Externalities in the Reduction of Working Time in the 19th Century in France’, CNRS-CEPREMAP, Working Paper no. 2002–08, June 2002, p. 15: http://www.cepremap.cnrs.fr/couv_orange/co0208.pdf
79. James Phillips Kay, The Moral and Physical Condition of the Working Classes Employed in the Cotton Manufacture in Manchester, Ridgway, London 1832, p. 9: https://archive.org/stream/moralphysicalcon00kaysuoft#page/n3/mode/2up
80. Ibid, pp. 10, 49, 71, 47, 39, 6–7, 12.
81. Sidney Pollard, ‘Factory Discipline in the Industrial Revolution’, The Economic History Review, vol. 16, no. 2, 1963, p. 260.
82. Marx, Capital, vol. 1, p. 670; The Times, 5 April 1867, p. 10 (‘The Distress in Poplar’), mentions only 4,000–5,000 demonstrators.
83. William Gladstone, Speech to the House of Commons, 13 February 1843: http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1843/feb/13/distress-of-the-country, p. 4,801.
84. Pasquale Villari, Le lettere meridionali ed altri scritti sulla questione sociale in Italia, Le Monnier, Florence 1878, p. 83.
85. William Booth, In Darkest England and the Way Out (1890), Charles Knight & Co, London 1970, pp. 11–12.
86. Originally published as Captain Lobe: A Story of the Salvation Army under the pseudonym of John Law.
87. Charles Booth, Life and Labour of the People in London, First Series: Poverty, vol. 1, Macmillan, London 1902–4, p. 33.
88. Ibid, p. 38.
89. Ibid, p. 36.
90. Anthony S. Wohl, The Eternal Slum: Housing and Social Policy in Victorian London, Edward Arnold, London 1977, p. 312.
91. Mokyr, The Enlightened Economy, p. 482.
92. Jack London, The People of the Abyss, Grosset & Dunlap, New York 1903, p. 168.
93. Guido Crainz, Padania. Il mondo dei braccianti dall’Ottocento alla fuga dalle campagne, Donzelli, Rome 1994, pp. 4–5.
94. Cited in Christopher Prior, Edwardian England and the Idea of Racial Decline: An Empire’s Future, Palgrave, Basingstoke 2013, p. 41.
95. Ian Gazeley and Andrew Newell, ‘Urban Working-Class Food Consumption and Nutrition in Britain in 1904’, Economic History Review, vol. 68, no. 1, February 2015, p. 121.
96. Reginald E. Zelnik, Labor and Society in Tsarist Russia: The Factory Workers of St. Petersburg, 1855– 1870, Stanford University Press 1971, pp. 269–71.
97. Ibid, pp. 241–8.
98. Hasia R. Diner, Hungering for America: Italian, Irish, and Jewish Foodways in the Age of Migration, Harvard University Press 2002, p. 13.
99. Knut Oyangen, ‘The Gastrodynamics of Displacement: Place-Making and Gustatory Identity in the Immigrants’ Midwest’, Journal of Interdisciplinary History, vol. 39, no.3, Winter 2009, pp. 332–3.
100. Daniel Horowitz, The Morality of Spending: Attitudes toward the Consumer Society in America, 1875–1940, Johns Hopkins University Press 1985, p. 15, using Massachusetts Bureau of Statistics of Labor.
101. Jacob A. Riis, How the Other Half Lives, W. W. Norton, New York 2010, p. 65.
102. Elizabeth Ewen, Immigrant Women in the Land of Dollars: Life and Culture on the Lower East Side, 1890–1925, Monthly Review Press, New York 1985, p. 167.
103. Lévy-Leboyer and Bourguignon, L’économie française au XIXe siècle, p. 25.
104. George Rudé, The Crowd in the French Revolution, Oxford University Press 1959, p. 21.
105. Maurice Halbwachs, La classe ouvrière et les niveaux de vie, Gordon and Breach, Paris, London, and New York 1970 (reprint of 1st edition, 1912, published by Félix Alcan), p. 147.
106. US Deptartment of Labor Statistics, Office of Publication and Special Studies: http://www.bls.gov/opub/uscs/1901.pdf and http://www.bls.gov/opub/uscs/2002-03.pdf
107. Simon N. Patten, The New Basis of Civilization, Macmillan, London 1907, p. 18.
108. Ibid, pp. 19–20.
109. Osterhammel, The Transformation of the World, p. 233.
110. Susan Strasser, Satisfaction Guaranteed: The Making of the American Mass Market, Pantheon Books, New York 1989, p. 3.
111. Segalen, ‘Material Conditions of Family Life’, p. 21.
112. Stuart Woolf, The Poor in Western Europe in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries, Methuen, London 1986, p. 69.
113. Segalen, ‘Material Conditions of Family Life’, p. 27.
114. Robert Castel, Les métamorphoses de la question sociale. Une cronique du salariat, Fayard, Paris 1995, p. 11.
115. Charters Wynn, Workers, Strikes, and Pogroms: The Donbass-Dnepr Bend in Late Imperial Russia, 1870–1905, Princeton University Press 1992, p. 69.
116. Paparazzo, I subalterni calabresi tra rimpianto e , pp. 66–7.
117. Jules Huret, Enquête sur la question sociale en Europe, Perrin, Paris 1897, p. 39: ftp://ftp.bnf.fr/002/N0024317_PDF_1_-1DM.pdf
118. Lenard R. Berlanstein, The Working People of Paris, 1871–1914, Johns Hopkins University Press 1984, p. 125.
119. Matsubara Iwagoro, In Darkest Tokyo: Sketches of Humble Life in the Capital of Japan, ‘Eastern World’ Newspaper Publishing and Printing Office, Yokohama 1897, p. 21.
120. Ibid, p. 13.
121. Noah McCormack, ‘Civilising the Urban Other: Poverty as a National Problem’, Ritsumeikan Annual Review of International Studies, vol. 6, 2007, pp. 34, 39: http://www.ritsumei.ac.jp/acd/cg/ir/college/bulletin/e-vol.6/02Noah%20McCormack.pdf; see also Chushichi Tsuzuki, The Pursuit of Power in Modern Japan, 1825–1995, Oxford University Press 2000, p. 149.
122. Louis Chevalier, Cl
asses laborieuses et classes dangereuses à Paris pendant la première moitié du XIXe siècle, Perrin, Paris 2002, first published 1958, pp. 180–81.
123. Flora Tristan, Le tour de France. État actuel de la classe ouvrière sous l’aspect moral – intellectuel – matériel. Journal inédit 1843–1844, Éditions Tête de feuilles, Paris 1973, entry for 15 March 1843, p. 17: http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k82507w
124. Ibid, 16 April 1843, p. 28.
125. Chevalier, Classes laborieuses et classes dangereuses, p. 318.
126. GB Historical GIS / University of Portsmouth, Population Statistics Total Population, A Vision of Britain through Time: http://www.visionofbritain.org.uk/unit/10076924/cube/TOT_POP, accessed 3 May 2017.
127. Office of National Statistics, Population Estimates for UK, England and Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland, Mid-2015, 23 June 2016. Retrieved 9 February 2017.
128. GB Historical GIS: http://www.visionofbritain.org.uk/unit/10097836/cube/TOT_POP
129. Greater London Authority: https://www.london.gov.uk/media/mayor-press-releases/2015/02/london-population-confirmed-at-record-high
130. Emma Griffin, Liberty’s Dawn: A People’s History of the Industrial Revolution, Yale University Press 2013, p. 52.
131. William Cobbett, Rural Rides, T. Nelson and Sons, London 1830, pp. 496–7: http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34238/34238-h/34238-h.htm
132. A. J. McIvor, ‘Employers, the Government, and Industrial Fatigue in Britain, 1890–1918’, Journal of Industrial Medicine, vol. 44, no. 11, November 1987, p. 725.
133. Axel Munthe, Letters from a Mourning City, John Murray, London 1899, pp. 31, 142–4.
134. Carlo Carozzi, ‘Le abitazioni nei capoluoghi di provincia italiani intorno al 1880: alla ricerca di alcune differenze tra Nord e Sud’, in Andreina De Clementi (ed.), La società inafferrabile, Edizioni Lavoro, Rome 1986, p. 137; for Chicago and New York, see Gordon, The Rise and Fall of American Growth, p. 51.
135. Maxime Du Camp, Expédition des Deux-Siciles, Calmann Lévy, Paris 1881, pp. 126 and 163.
136. André Gueslin, Gens pauvres, pauvres gens dans la France du XIXe siècle, Aubier, Paris 1998, pp. 84–5.
137. Alexis de Tocqueville, Mémoire sur le paupérisme, Ministère de l’instruction publique et des beaux-arts, Imprimerie nationale, Paris 1835, pp. 3–4.
138. Kume Kunitake, Japan Rising: The Iwakura Embassy to the USA and Europe, ed. Chushichi Tsuzuki and R. Jules Young, Cambridge University Press 2009, pp. 110–11.
139. Ellen Meiksins Wood, Empire of Capital, Verso, London 2003, pp. 16, 18–19.
140. Buret, De la misère des classes laborieuses, vol. 2, p. 295.
141. B. Seebohm Rowntree, Poverty: A Study of Town Life, Macmillan, London 1901, p. 112.
142. Ibid, p. 118.
143. Ibid, pp. 119–21, 142.
144. Charles Booth, ‘Enumeration and Classification of Paupers, and State Pensions for the Aged’, Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, vol. 54, no. 4, 1891, pp. 600–643, 618.
145. Booth, Life and Labour of the People in London, p. 33.
146. Barthélemy Faujas-Saint-Fond, Voyage en Angleterre, en Écosse et aux Îles Hébrides, vol. 2, H. J. Jansen, Paris 1797, pp. 80–87.
147. Ibid, pp. 88–9, references to Miss Mac-Liane on pp. 22, 76, and 430.
148. Cited in Crook, The Rise of the Nouveaux Riches, pp. 47–8.
149. Berlanstein, The Working People of Paris, 1871–1914, p. 46.
150. Ardant, Histoire financière, p. 340.
151. Harold Perkin, The Rise of Professional Society: England since 1880, Routledge, London 2002, p. 29.
152. W. D. Rubinstein, ‘Education and the Social Origins of British Élites, 1880–1970’, Past & Present, no. 112, August 1986, p. 170.
153. Richard Sennett, Families against the City: Middle-Class Homes of Industrial Chicago, 1872–1890, Harvard University Press 1970, p. 86.
154. Pomeranz, The Great Divergence, p. 117.
155. Ibid, p. 118.
156. Data from Euromonitor International reported in the Washington Post, by Roberto A. Ferdman, 5 February 2015: https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2015/02/05/where-people-around-the-world-eat-the-most-sugar-and-fat/?utm_term=.708179dadd94, accessed 3 May 2017.
157. Adeline Daumard, ‘Puissance et inquiétudes de la société bourgeoise’, in Fernand Braudel and Ernest Labrousse (eds), Histoire économique et sociale de la France, Tome IV: L’ère industrielle et la société d’aujourd’hui (siècle 1880–1980), vol. 1, Presses Universitaires de France, Paris 1979, p. 441.
158. Eliza Lynn Linton (E.L.L.), ‘The Wild Women. 1. As Politicians’, Nineteenth Century, vol. 30, no. 173, July 1891, pp. 79–80.
159. George Somes Layard, Mrs. Lynn Linton: Her Life, Letters, and Opinions, Methuen, London 1901, p. 349.
160. Eliza Lynn Linton (E.L.L.), ‘On the Side of the Maids’, Cornhill Magazine, vol. 29, 1874, pp. 299–300, 301–2, 305–6: http://www.victorianweb.org/history/work/maids1.html
161. Eric Mension-Rigau, Aristocrates et grands bourgeois, Plon, Paris 1994, pp. 390–91.
162. Daumard, ‘Puissance et inquiétudes de la société bourgeoise’, pp. 442, 460.
163. Alison Light, Mrs Woolf and the Servants, Penguin / Fig Tree, London 2007, p. xv.
164. For 1891 see Leonore Davidoff, ‘Mastered for Life: Servant and Wife in Victorian and Edwardian England’, Journal of Social History, vol. 7, no. 4, Summer 1974, p. 410; for 1871 see Edward Higgs, ‘Domestic Servants and Households in Victorian England’, Social History, vol. 8, no. 2, May 1983, p. 202.
165. Giovanni Montroni, ‘La famiglia borghese’, in Piero Melograni (ed.), La famiglia italiana dall’ottocento a oggi, Laterza, Rome-Bari 1988, p. 127.
166. Edward Higgs, ‘Women, Occupations and Work in the Nineteenth Century Censuses’, History Workshop Journal, vol. 23, no. 1, 1987, pp. 68–9.
167. Higgs, ‘Domestic Servants and Households in Victorian England’, p. 202.
168. Davidoff, ‘Mastered for Life’, p. 412.
169. Daumard, ‘Puissance et inquiétudes de la société bourgeoise’, p. 448.
170. Susan Strasser, Never Done: A History of American Housework, Pantheon Books, New York 1982, p. 105.
171. Ibid, p. 86.
172. Jean-Luc Pinol, Le monde des villes au XIXe siècle, Hachette, Paris 1991, pp. 147–8.
173. Bairoch, ‘Urbanization and the Economy in Pre-Industrial Societies’, p. 261.
174. Sören Edvinsson and Hans Nilsson, ‘Swedish Towns during Industrialization’, Annales de démographie historique, 1999, p. 63.
175. Stefano Musso, ‘La famiglia operaia’, in Melograni (ed.), La famiglia italiana dall’ottocento a oggi, p. 67; Histoire de la population française, vol. 3: De 1789 à 1914, ed. Jacques Dupâquier, Presses Universitaires de France, Paris 1988, p. 294.
176. Robert Woods, ‘The Effects of Population Redistribution on the Level of Mortality in Nineteenth-Century England and Wales’, Journal of Economic History, vol. 45, no. 3, September 1985, p. 650.
177. Theodore Roosevelt, ‘State of the Union Address’, 6 December 1904: http://www.infoplease.com/t/hist/state-of-the-union/116.html
178. Jörg Vögele, Urban Mortality Change in England and Germany, 1870–1913, Liverpool University Press 1998, p. 35.
179. Ibid, p. 147.
180. Ibid, p. 35.
181. Jörg P. Vögele, ‘Différences entre ville et campagne et évolution de la mortalité en Allemagne pendant l’industrialisation’, Annales de démographie historique, 1996, p. 256.
182. Vögele, ‘Différences entre ville et champagne’, p. 253.
183. Gordon, The Rise and Fall of American Growth, pp. 51–2.
184. Alan Macfarlane, The Savage Wars of Peace: England, Japan and the Malthusian Trap, Palgrave, Basingstoke 2003, p. 126.
185. Ibid, p. 139.
186. Gordon, ‘Does the “New Economy” Measure up to the Great Inventions of the Past?’, p. 58; for France see Leymoneri
e, ‘Le Salon des arts ménagers dans les années 1950’, p. 45.
187. John Burnett, Plenty and Want: A Social History of Food in England from 1815 to the Present Day, Routledge, London 2013, p. 100.
188. Werner Troesken, Water, Race, and Disease, MIT Press 2004, p. 23.
189. John Milton Cooper, Jr., Pivotal Decades: The United States, 1900–1920, Norton, New York 1990, p. 99.
190. Louis Galambos, ‘State-Owned Enterprises in a Hostile Environment: The US Experience’, in The Rise and Fall of State-Owned Enterprises in the Western World, ed. Pier Angelo Toninelli, Cambridge University Press 2000, p. 282.
191. Figures from Water Aid: http://www.wateraid.org/where-we-work/page/india, and UNICEF: https://www.unicef.org/gambia/Progress_on_drinking_water_and_sanitation_2014_update.pdf
192. Pinol, Le monde des villes au XIXe siècle, p. 147.
193. Thomas Bethan, Danny Dorling, and George Davey Smith, ‘Inequalities in Premature Mortality in Britain: Observational Study from 1921 to 2007’, British Medical Journal, 22 July 2010: http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.c3639; Richard Wilkinson and Kate Pickett, The Spirit Level: Why More Equal Societies Almost Always Do Better, Allen Lane, London 2009, esp. pp. 15–26.
194. Alain Faure, ‘Paris, “gouffre de l’espèce humaine”?’, French Historical Studies, vol. 27, no. 1, Winter 2004, pp. 49–86.
195. James C. Riley, Rising Life Expectancy: A Global History, Cambridge University Press 2001, p. 2.
196. Adolf Hausrath, ‘The Life of Treitschke’, in Heinrich von Treitschke and Adolf Hausrath, Treitschke: His Life and Works, Jarrold & Sons/Allen & Unwin, London 1914, p. 9: https://archive.org/stream/treitschkehislif00treiuoft#page/n15/mode/2up/search/colonisation
197. Marc Debuisson, ‘The Decline of Infant Mortality in the Belgian Districts at the Turn of the 20th Century’, Journal of Belgian History, vol. 31, nos 3–4, 2001, pp. 497–527.
198. Paul Clayton and Judith Rowbotham, ‘How the Mid-Victorians Worked, Ate and Died’, International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, vol. 6, no. 3, 2009, pp. 1,238–9.
199. Lorenzo Del Panta, ‘Mortalité infantile et post-infantile en Italie du XVIIIe au XXe siècle: tendances à long terme et differences régionales’, Annales de démographie historique, 1994, p. 47.
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