200. Riley, Rising Life Expectancy, p. xi, whose list is longer, and pp. 1–31; see Thomas McKeown, The Modern Rise of Population, Edward Arnold, London 1976; see also Robert W. Fogel, The Escape from Hunger and Premature Death, 1700–2100: Europe, America, and the Third World, Cambridge University Press 2004, p. 5.
201. Simon Szreter, Health and Wealth: Studies in History and Policy, esp. ‘The Importance of Social Intervention in Britain’s Mortality Decline c.1850–1914: A Reinterpretation of the Role of Public Health’, University of Rochester Press 2005, pp. 98–145.
202. Werner Troesken, ‘Typhoid Rates and the Public Acquisition of Private Waterworks, 1880–1920’, Journal of Economic History, vol. 59, no. 4, December 1999, pp. 927, 931.
203. Haines, ‘The Population of the United States, 1790–1920’, p. 176.
204. United Nations, Human Development Report, 2006: http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2006, p. 299; Riley, Rising Life Expectancy, p. 135.
205. Haidong Wang et al., ‘Age-Specific and Sex-Specific Mortality in 187 Countries, 1970–2010: A Systematic Analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010’, Lancet, vol. 380, no. 9859, 15 December 2012, pp. 2,075–84.
206. Riley, Rising Life Expectancy, p. 35. On Japan and Egypt see Jean-Claude Chesnais, La transition démographique. Trente ans de bouleversements (1965–1995), Les dossiers du CEPED, no. 34, October 1995, p. 13.
207. Christopher Ingraham, ‘15 Baltimore Neighborhoods Have Lower Life Expectancies than North Korea’, Washington Post, 30 April 2015: http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/wonkblog/wp/2015/04/30/baltimores-poorest-residents-die-20-years-earlier-than-its-richest
208. See this study from the University of Washington: L. Dwyer-Lindgren, A. Bertozzi-Villa, R. W. Stubbs, C. Morozoff, J. P. Mackenbach, F. J. van Lenthe, A. H. Mokdad, and C. J. L. Murray, ‘Inequalities in Life Expectancy among US Counties, 1980 to 2014’, JAMA Internal Medicine, 8 May 2017: http://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamainternalmedicine/fullarticle/2626194, accessed 10 May 2017; see also Wilkinson and Pickett, The Spirit Level.
209. Peter Nolan and John Sender, ‘Death Rates, Life Expectancy and Economic Reforms’, in Peter Nolan and Qimiao Fan (eds), China’s Economic Reforms: The Costs and Benefits of Incrementalism, St. Martin’s Press, New York 1994, p. 335.
210. WHO data: http://www.who.int/gho/publications/world_health_statistics/2016/EN_WHS2016_AnnexB.pdf?ua=1, accessed 10 May 2017.
211. Anne Hardy, The Epidemic Streets: Infectious Disease and the Rise of Preventive Medicine, 1856–1900, Clarendon Press, Oxford 1993, pp. 3ff.
212. Edmund A. Parkes, Public Health, J. & A. Churchill, London 1876, p. 17, published in the year of his death.
213. Figure for Africa in United Nations, Human Development Report, 2006, for Japan and Europe in Massimo Livi-Bacci, A Concise History of World Population, Blackwell, Oxford 1997, p. 121.
214. Nicolás Sánchez-Albornoz, ‘The Population of Latin America, 1850–1930’, in Bethell (ed.), The Cambridge History of Latin America, vol. IV, pp. 141–2.
215. Fogel, The Escape from Hunger and Premature Death, 1700–2100, p. 8.
216. David Grigg, ‘The Nutritional Transition in Western Europe’, Journal of Historical Geography, vol. 21, no. 3, 1995, p. 248.
217. Peter Baldwin, Contagion and the State in Europe, 1830–1930, Cambridge University Press 2005, p. 37.
218. Myron Echenberg, Africa in the Time of Cholera: A History of Pandemics from 1817 to the Present, Cambridge University Press 2011, p. 21.
219. Ibid, p. 75.
220. Geoffrey Hosking, Russia and the Russians: A History, Harvard University Press 2001, p. 9.
221. Montroni, La società italiana dall’unificazione alla Grande Guerra, p. 163.
222. Frank Snowden, Naples in the Time of Cholera, 1884–1911, Cambridge University Press 1995, p. 16.
223. László Katus, ‘Economic Growth in Hungary during the Age of Dualism’, Social Economic Researches on the History of East-Central Europe, Studia Historica 62, Budapest 1970, p. 41.
224. W. Luckin, ‘The Final Catastrophe – Cholera in London, 1866’, Medical History, vol. 21, no. 1, 1977, p. 32.
225. Livi-Bacci, The Population of Europe: A History; Snowden, Naples in the Time of Cholera, pp. 144–5; and Richard Evans, Death in Hamburg: Society and Politics in the Cholera Years, 1830–1910, Penguin, London 1990.
226. Evans, Death in Hamburg, p. 313.
227. Dhiman Barua and William B. Greenough III (eds), Cholera, Plenum Medical Book Company, New York 1991, p. 20.
228. Myron Echenberg, Plague Ports: The Global Urban Impact of Bubonic Plague, 1894– 1901, New York University Press 2007, pp. 16–17 and 304, mortality statistics on p. 314.
229. Nayan Shah, Contagious Divides: Epidemics and Race in San Francisco’s Chinatown, California University Press 2001, p. 2.
230. Echenberg, Plague Ports, p. 262.
231. Mark Harrison, Disease and the Modern World, Polity, Cambridge 2004, pp. 120–23.
232. Alfred W. Crosby, America’s Forgotten Pandemic: The Influenza of 1918, Cambridge University Press 1989, p. 319.
233. John Womack, Jr., ‘The Mexican Revolution, 1910–1920’, in Bethell (ed.), The Cambridge History of Latin America, vol. V, p. 138.
234. France Meslé and Jacques Vallin, ‘Reconstitution de tables annuelles de mortalité pour la France au XIXe siècle’, Population, vol. 44, no. 6, November– December 1989, p. 1,136.
235. Klein, A Population History of the United States, p. 107.
236. Ibid, p. 109.
237. Ibid, p. 110.
238. For population statistics for England see National Statistics, Focus on People and Migration, Palgrave Macmillan, London 2005, pp. 2–4: http://www.statistics.gov.uk/downloads/theme_compendia/fom2005/01_FOPM_Population.pdf
239. Alfred W. Crosby, Jr., The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492, Praeger, Westport, CT 2003 (first published 1972), p. 37.
240. Ibid, p. 39.
241. David E. Stannard, American Holocaust: Columbus and the Conquest of the New World, Oxford University Press 1992, pp. 33 and 267; see also Ward Churchill, A Little Matter of Genocide: Holocaust , City Lights Books, San Francisco, CA 1997, pp. 134–6. Estimates of pre-contact native Americans vary widely: see Benjamin Madley, ‘Reexamining the American Genocide Debate: Meaning, Historiography, and New Methods’, American Historical Review, vol. 120, no. 1, February 2015, esp. footnote 1, p. 98.
242. Stannard, American Holocaust, p. 145.
243. Data from the IBGE (Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística), cited in Ruben Schindler Maggi, ‘Indigenous Health in Brazil’, Revista Brasileira de Saúde Materno Infantil, vol. 14, no. 1, January/March 2014: http://www.scielo.br/pdf/rbsmi/v14n1/en_1519–3829–rbsmi–14–01–0013.pdf
244. Carlo Cipolla, Before the Industrial Revolution, Cambridge University Press 1976, p. 75.
245. Alain Dewerpe, Le monde du travail en France, 1800–1950, Armand Colin, Paris 1989, p. 99.
246. Jean-Pierre Bardet, ‘La France en déclin’, in Jean-Pierre Bardet and Jacques Dupâquier (eds), Histoire des populations de l’Europe, vol. 2, Fayard, Paris 1998, pp. 287–325.
247. Histoire de la population française, vol. 3, ed. Dupâquier (eds), p. 354.
248. John C. Hunter, ‘The Problem of the French Birth Rate on the Eve of World War I’, French Historical Studies, vol. 2, no. 4, Autumn 1962, p. 494.
249. Leduc, Histoire de la France, p. 101.
250. Dewerpe, Le monde du travail en France, p. 100.
251. Daumard, ‘Puissance et inquiétudes de la société bourgeoise’, pp. 458–9.
252. Ibid, pp. 446–7.
253. Ibid, 1906 figures on p. 457.
254. François Caron, ‘Dynamismes et freinages de la croissance industrielle’, in Braudel and Labrousse (eds), Histoire économique et sociale de la France, Tome IV, vol. 1, p. 263.
255. Janos, ‘Modernization and Decay in Historical Perspective’, p. 75.<
br />
256. Ibid.
257. Stephen Broadberry and Alexander Klein, ‘Aggregate and Per Capita GDP in Europe, 1870–2000: Continental, Regional and National Data with Changing Boundaries’, University of Warwick, 8 February 2008: http://www.cepr.org/meets/wkcn/1/1699/papers/Broadberry_Klein.pdf, p. 20.
258. Jaime Reis, ‘How Poor was the European Periphery before 1850? The Mediterranean vs Scandinavia’, in Sevket Pamuk and Jeffrey G. Williamson (eds), The Mediterranean Response to Globalization before 1950, Routledge, London and New York 2000, pp. 20–21.
259. Angus Maddison, Dynamic Forces in Capitalist Development: A Long-Run Comparative View, Oxford University Press 1991, p. 50.
260. Paul Bairoch, ‘Europe’s Gross National Product: 1800–1975’, Journal of European Economic History, vol. 5, no. 2, 1976, pp. 276–7.
261. Ibid, p. 278.
262. Ibid, p. 282.
263. Ibid, p. 286.
264. Ritta Hjerppe, The Finnish Economy, 1860–1985: Growth and Structural Change, Bank of Finland, Helsinki 1989, p. 51.
265. Bairoch, ‘Europe’s Gross National Product: 1800–1975’, p. 281.
266. Ibid, p. 287.
267. John Maynard Keynes, The General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money, Macmillan, London 1967, p. 96.
268. All Gini data from CIA World Factbook: https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2172.html
269. Angus Deaton, The Great Escape: Health, Wealth, and the Origins of Inequality, Princeton University Press 2013, p. 1.
270. François Bourguignon and Christian Morrisson, ‘Inequality among World Citizens 1820–1992’, American Economic Review, vol. 92, no. 4, September 2002, p. 731.
271. Thomas Piketty, Capital in the Twenty-First Century, Belknap Press, Harvard University Press 2014, esp. Chapter 9.
272. Bourguignon and Morrisson, ‘Inequality among World Citizens 1820–1992’, p. 728.
273. Ibid.
274. Ibid, p. 733.
275. Paul Leroy-Beaulieu, Essai sur la répartition des richesses et sur la tendance à une moindre inégalité des conditions, 4th ed., Guillaumin, Paris 1897, p. iii.
276. Bourguignon and Morrisson, ‘Inequality among World Citizens 1820–1992’, p. 733.
277. Ibid, p. 734; Macfarlane, The Savage Wars of Peace, p. xix; Jacques Gernet, Le monde chinois, vol. 2: L’époque moderne, Armand Colin, Paris 2006, p. 238; see the discussion of Kenneth Pomeranz’s The Great Divergence, and the survey of the literature in P. H. H. Vries, ‘Are Coal and Colonies Really Crucial? Kenneth Pomeranz and the Great Divergence’, Journal of World History, vol. 12, no. 2, Fall 2001, p. 411.
278. Roy Bin Wong, China Transformed: Historical Change and the Limits of European Experience, Cornell University Press 1997, p. 29.
279. Cited in E. N. Anderson, The Food of China, Yale University Press 1988, p. 96.
280. Adam Smith, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, Penn State Electronic Classics 2005, pp. 64, 161, 202: http://www2.hn.psu.edu/faculty/jmanis/adam-smith/Wealth-Nations.pdf
281. Bourguignon and Morrisson, ‘Inequality among World Citizens 1820–1992’, p. 737.
282. See calculation based on purchasing power parity in Vera Zamagni, ‘An International Comparison of Real Industrial Wages, 1890–1913: Methodological Issues and Results’, in Peter Scholliers (ed.), Real Wages in 19th and 20th Century Europe: Historical and Comparative Perspectives, Berg, Oxford 1989, p. 119.
283. Bairoch, ‘Wages as an Indicator of Gross National Product’, p. 58.
3. Westernizing the East
1. Maria Todorova, Imagining the Balkans, Oxford University Press 1997, p. 11.
2. Larry Wolff, ‘Voltaire’s Public and the Idea of Eastern Europe’, Slavic Review, vol. 54, no. 4, 1995, pp. 932–42; Jonathan I. Israel, Radical Enlightenment: Philosophy and the Making of Modernity, 1650–1750, Oxford University Press 2001, p. 702.
3. Wolff, ‘Voltaire’s Public and the Idea of Eastern Europe’, p. 936.
4. Voltaire, Histoire de Charles XII, in Oeuvres complètes, vol. 22, Dupont, Paris 1823–7, pp. 43–5.
5. Voltaire, Histoire de l’Empire de Russie sous Pierre le Grand, in Oeuvres complètes, vol. 23, Dupont, Paris 1823–7, p. 122.
6. Charles de Secondat Montesquieu, De l’esprit des lois, vol. I, Gallimard, Paris 1995, p. 180.
7. Yan Fu (Yen Fou), Les manifestes de Yen Fou, ed. François Houang, Fayard, Paris 1977, pp. 86–8.
8. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, Correspondence 1846–1895: A Selection with Commentary and Notes, Martin Lawrence, London 1934, p. 255.
9. Evelyn Baring (Lord Cromer), Modern Egypt, vol. 2, Routledge, London and New York 2000, pp. 539, 134, first published 1908.
10. Mary Lyndon Shanley, Feminism, Marriage, and the Law in Victorian England, 1850–1895, I. B. Tauris, London 1989, pp. 103–30, 131–55.
11. Cited in Jonathan D. Spence, The Gate of Heavenly Peace: The Chinese and their Revolution, 1895–1980 , Faber and Faber, London and Boston, MA 1982, p. 52.
12. Peter Zarrow, ‘He Zhen and Anarcho-Feminism in China’, Journal of Asian Studies, vol. 47, no. 4, November 1988, p. 799; see also Catherine Gipoulon, ‘L’“intellectuel” au féminin: féminisme et révolution en Chine au début du XXe siècle’, Extrême-Orient, Extrême-Occident, no. 4, 1984, pp. 159–73.
13. W. Morgan Shuster, The Strangling of Persia: A Record of European Diplomacy and Oriental Intrigue, T. Fisher Unwin, London 1912, pp. 187–8.
14. Ibid, p. 184.
15. Pomeranz, The Great Divergence, p. 9.
16. Ibid, pp. 43–4.
17. Mokyr, The Lever of Riches, pp. 210, 217; Donald B. Wagner, Iron and Steel in Ancient China, Brill, Leiden, New York and Cologne 1993, pp. 335–6.
18. On this last point see William Guanglin Liu, ‘The Making of a Fiscal State in Song China, 960–1279’, Economic History Review, vol. 68, no. 1, 2015, pp. 48–78.
19. This is the central argument of Kenneth S. Chan and Jean-Pierre Laffargue, ‘Foreign Threats, Technological Progress and the Rise and Decline of Imperial China’, Pacific Economic Review, vol. 17, no. 2, 2012, pp. 280–303.
20. Timothy Brook, The Confusions of Pleasure: Commerce and Culture in Ming China, University of California Press 1999, p. 201; Francesca Bray, Technology and Gender: Fabrics of Power in Late Imperial China, University of California Press 1997, p. 225.
21. F. W. Mote, Imperial China, 900–1800, Harvard University Press 1999, p. 947.
22. Bozhong Li, Agricultural Development in Jiangnan, 1620–1850, Macmillan, Basingstoke 1998, pp. 115, 159; Chris Bramall and Peter Nolan, ‘Introduction’, in Xu Dixin and Wu Chengming (eds), Chinese Capitalism, 1522–1840, Macmillan, Basingstoke 2000, pp. xxvi– xxvii.
23. Li, Agricultural Development in Jiangnan, p. 21.
24. See European data in Paul Bairoch and Gary Goertz, ‘Factors of Urbanisation in the Nineteenth-Century Developed Countries: A Descriptive and Econometric Analysis’, Urban Studies, 1986, vol. 23, p. 288. Of course, much depends on the definition of what constitutes an urban area.
25. Robert Y. Eng, ‘Luddism and Labor Protest among Silk Artisans and Workers in Jiangnan and Guangdong, 1860–1930’, Late Imperial China, vol. 11, no. 2, December 1990, p. 65.
26. Christine Cornet, État et entreprises en Chine XIXe–XXe siècles. Le chantier naval de Jiangnan, 1865–1937, Éditions Arguments, Paris 1997.
27. Jacques Gernet, Le monde chinois, vol. 2: L’époque moderne, Armand Colin, Paris 2006, p. 238.
28. Evelyn Sakakida Rawski, Education and Popular Literacy in Ch’ing China, University of Michigan Press 1979, p. 140.
29. Ernest Renan, Essais de morale et de critique, Michel Lévy frères, Paris 1859, pp. 361–2.
30. G. W. F. Hegel, The Philosophy of History, trans. J. Sibree, P. F. Collier and Son, New York 1901, p. 163: http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=coo1.ark:/13960/t5j96qh5b;view=1up;seq=5
31. Wen-yuan Qian, The Great Inertia: Scienti
fic Stagnation in Traditional China, Croom Helm, London 1985, p. 103.
32. See, in particular, Pamela Kyle Crossley, Orphan Warriors: Three Manchu Generations and the End of the Qing World, Princeton University Press 1990, pp. 8–10ff.
33. Pomeranz and Topik, The World , p. 12.
34. Qian Long, Letter to George III, 1793, from the Qianlong Emperor: https://legacy.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1793qianlong.asp
35. See Henrietta Harrison’s lecture of 6 February 2014 at the School of Advanced Study, University of London, and available as a podcast: ‘Chinese and British Gift Giving in the Macartney Embassy of 1793’: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PDzHrQi8oTQ
36. Robert Bickers, The Scramble for China: Foreign Devils in the Qing Empire, 1832–1914, Allen Lane, London 2011, p. 82.
37. Robert Hart, ‘These from the Land of Sinim’: Essays on the Chinese Question, Chapman & Hall, London 1901, p. 61.
38. Jonathan Spence, ‘Opium Smoking in Ch’ing China’, in Frederic Wakeman, Jr. and Carolyn Grant (eds), Conflict and Control in Late Imperial China, University of California Press 1975, pp. 150–53.
39. Chang Chih-tung (Zhang Zhidong), China’s Only Hope: An Appeal, Fleming H. Revell Co., New York 1900, pp. 72–3 (Chang Chih-tung is the Wade-Giles romanization for Zhang Zhidong).
40. Ssu-yü Teng and John K. Fairbank (eds), China’s Response to the West: A Documentary Survey, 1839–1923, Harvard University Press 1961, pp. 25–6.
41. William Gladstone, Speech to the House of Commons, 8 April 1840, Hansard vol. 53, cc 749–837: http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1840/apr/08/war-with-china-adjourned-debate#S3V0053P0_18400408_HOC_6; see also Julia Lovell, The Opium Wars: Drugs, Dreams and the Making of China, Picador, London 2011, p. 107.
42. R. Montgomery Martin, Opium in China, extracted from China; Political, Commercial, and Social, James Madden, London n.d. (1847), p. 89.
43. Karl Marx, ‘Trade or Opium?’, New York Daily Tribune, 20 September 1858: http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1858/09/20.htm
44. Frances V. Moulder, Japan, China, and the Modern World Economy: Towards a Reinterpretation of East Asian Development ca. 1600 to ca. 1918, Cambridge University Press 1977, p. 108.
The Anxious Triumph Page 89
