45. Ibid, p. 115.
46. Odd Arne Westad, Restless Empire: China and the World since 1750, Bodley Head, London 2012, p. 60.
47. Crossley, Orphan Warriors, p. 125.
48. Gernet, Le monde chinois, p. 316.
49. Wong, China Transformed, pp. 155–6.
50. Pamela Kyle Crossley, The Wobbling Pivot: China since 1800, Wiley-Blackwell, Oxford 2010, p. 109.
51. Peter C. Perdue, Exhausting the Earth: State and Peasant in Hunan, 1500–1850, Harvard University Press 1987, pp. 237–9.
52. Lillian M. Lil, Fighting Famine in North China, Stanford University Press 2007, pp. 268–77.
53. Ibid, pp. 308–9 and 469n.
54. Mary Clabaugh Wright, The Last Stand of Chinese Conservatism: The T’ung-Chih Restoration, 1862–1874, Stanford University Press 1957, p. 7.
55. Ibid, pp. 196ff. This author believes in the substantial incompatibility of Confucianism with a modern state.
56. Ibid, pp. 148–9.
57. Cited in ibid, p. 154.
58. Yen-P’ing Hao and Erh-min Wang, ‘Changing Chinese Views of Western Relations, 1840–95’, in The Cambridge History of China, ed. John K. Fairbank and Kwang-ching Liu, vol. 11: Late Ch’ing, 1800–1911, part 2, Cambridge University Press 1980, pp. 169–71.
59. Kenneth Pomeranz, The Making of a Hinterland.: State, Society, and Economy in Inland North China, 1853–1937, University of California Press 1993, p. 274.
60. Wong, China Transformed, p. 155.
61. Jonathan Spence, The China Helpers: Western Advisers in China, 1620–1960, Bodley Head, London 1969, p. 93.
62. Immanuel C. Y. Hsü, ‘Late Ch’ing Foreign Relations, 1866–1905’, in The Cambridge History of China, ed. Fairbank and Liu, vol. 11, pp. 70–72.
63. Spence, The China Helpers, p. 113.
64. Wu Chengming, ‘A Brief Account of the Development of Capitalism in China’, in Tim Wright (ed.), The Chinese Economy in the Early Twentieth Century: Recent Chinese Studies, St Martin’s Press, New York 1992, p. 32.
65. Wright, The Last Stand of Chinese Conservatism, p. 177.
66. Max Weber, The Religion of China: Confucianism and Taoism, Macmillan, New York 1951, pp. 248, 227.
67. Text in Teng and Fairbank, China’s Response to the West, pp. 52–3.
68. Jonathan D. Spence, The Search for Modern China, Norton, New York 2013, p. 187.
69. Crossley, The Wobbling Pivot, p. 119.
70. Douglas Howland, Borders of Chinese Civilization: Geography and History at Empire’s End, Duke University Press 1996, p. 2, see also pp. 198ff.
71. Marius B. Jansen, The Making of Modern Japan, Belknap Press, Cambridge 2000, p. 433.
72. Chang Chih-tung (Zhang Zhidong), China’s Only Hope, pp. 84–5.
73. Marius Jansen, ‘Japan and the Chinese Revolution of 1911’, in Fairbank and Liu (eds), The Cambridge History of China, vol. 11, pp. 345–6.
74. Hao Chang, ‘Intellectual Change and the Reform Movement, 1890–08’, in Fairbank and Liu (eds), The Cambridge History of China, vol. 11, pp. 285–91.
75. Ibid, pp. 323–7.
76. Spence, The Search for Modern China, p. 221.
77. Immanuel C. Y. Hsü, The Rise of Modern China, Oxford University Press 1990, p. 377.
78. Victor Purcell, The Boxer Uprising: A Background Study, Cambridge University Press 1963, p. 224.
79. Colin Mackerras, Western Images of China, Oxford University Press 1989, p. 68.
80. Crossley, The Wobbling Pivot, p. 139.
81. Chuzo Ichiko, ‘Political and Institutional Reform, 1901–11’, in Fairbank and Liu (eds), The Cambridge History of China, vol. 11, p. 375.
82. Crossley, The Wobbling Pivot, p. 118.
83. Text in Teng and Fairbank (eds), China’s Response to the West, p. 199.
84. Ichiko, ‘Political and Institutional Reform, 1901–11’, pp. 376, 283.
85. Ibid, pp. 388–9.
86. Hsü, The Rise of Modern China, pp. 412–13.
87. Timothy B. Weston, ‘The Founding of the Imperial University and the Emergence of Chinese Modernity’, in Rebecca E. Karl and Peter Zarrow (eds), Rethinking the 1898 Reform Period: Political and Cultural Change in Late Qing China, Harvard University Asia Center, 2002, pp. 102–3.
88. Crossley, The Wobbling Pivot, p. 140.
89. Text in Teng and Fairbank (eds), China’s Response to the West, p. 167.
90. Wellington K. K. Chan, ‘Government, Merchants and Industry to 1911’, in Fairbank and Liu (eds), The Cambridge History of China, vol. 11, pp. 419–20,
91. Yen-P’ing Hao, ‘Cheng Kuan-ying: The Comprador as Reformer’, Journal of Asian Studies, vol. 29, no. 1, November 1969, pp. 15–22.
92. Ibid, p. 20.
93. Hao and Wang, ‘Changing Chinese Views of Western Relations, 1840–95’, pp. 191–3.
94. Cheng-chung Lai, ‘Adam Smith and Yen Fu: Western Economics in Chinese Perspective’, Journal of European Economic History, vol. 18, no. 2, Fall 1989, pp. 373–5.
95. Frederic Wakeman, Jr., The Fall of Imperial China, The Free Press, New York and London 1975, p. 39.
96. Benjamin I. Schwartz, In Search of Wealth and Power: Yen Fu and the West, Harper, New York 1964, p. 114.
97. Yan Fu (Yen Fou), Les manifestes de Yen Fou, p. 126; see also Hsü, The Rise of Modern China, pp. 422–3.
98. Leigh Jenco, Changing Referents: Learning across Space and Time in China and the West, Oxford University Press 2015, p. 28.
99. Cited by François Houang in his introduction to Yan Fu (Yen Fou), Les manifestes de Yen Fou, p. 27.
100. Mao Zedong, ‘On the People’s Democratic Dictatorship: In Commemoration of the Twenty-Eighth Anniversary of the Communist Party of China’, 30 June 1949: https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/mao/selected-works/volume-4/mswv4_65.htm, accessed 6 May 2017.
101. Richard S. Horowitz, ‘Breaking the Bonds of Precedent: The 1905–6 Government Reform Commission and the Remaking of the Qing Central State’, Modern Asian Studies, vol. 37, no. 4, p. 775. On the uses of Japan as a model for China see Roger R. Thompson, China’s Local Councils in the Age of Constitutional Reform, 1898–1911, Harvard University Press 1995, pp. 39–52.
102. Roger R. Thomson, ‘The Lessons of Defeat: Transforming the Qing State after the Boxer War’, Modern Asian Studies, vol. 37, no. 4, 2003, pp. 769–73, esp. p. 770, suggesting that the reforms failed to convert the Qing state into one fit for the twentieth century.
103. Wong, China Transformed, p. 133.
104. Albert Feuerwerker, ‘Economic Trends in the Late Ch’ing Empire, 1870–1911’, in Fairbank and Liu (eds), The Cambridge History of China, vol. 11, p. 68.
105. See esp. Thompson, China’s Local Councils, pp. 7–20.
106. Spence, The Search for Modern China, p. 235.
107. This claim seems to have been substantiated by a relatively recent investigation: see Lin Qi, ‘The Poisoned Palace – Mystery of Last Emperor’s Death’, China Daily, 21 November 2008: http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2008-11/21/content_7226663.htm, accessed 6 May 2017.
108. Ichiko, ‘Political and Institutional Reform, 1901–11’, p. 397.
109. Julia C. Strauss, ‘Creating “Virtuous and Talented” Officials for the Twentieth Century: Discourse and Practice in Xinzheng China’, Modern Asian Studies, vol. 37, no. 4, October 2003, p. 833.
110. ‘Resolution on Certain Questions in the History of Our Party Since the Founding of the People’s Republic of China adopted by the Sixth Ple-nary Session of the Eleventh Central Committee of the Communist Party of China on June 27, 1981’: http://english.cpc.people.com.cn/66095/4471924.html
111. See Castells, The Rise of the Network Society, vol. 1 of The Information Age, p. 9, on the basis of Mokyr, The Lever of Riches, pp. 209–38.
112. John S. Gregory, The West and China since 1500, Palgrave, Basingstoke 2003, p. 116; see also Mackerras, Western Images of China, p. 44.
113. Hsü, The Rise of Modern China, p. 449.
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14. Martin Lynn, ‘British Policy, Trade, and Informal Empire in the Mid-Nineteenth Century’, in Andrew Porter (ed.), The Oxford History of the British Empire, vol. 3: The Nineteenth Century, Oxford University Press 1999, p. 108.
115. Michael Adas, Machines as Measures of Men: Science, Technology and Ideologies of Western Dominance, Cornell University Press 1989, pp. 79–81; see also Jonathan Spence, The , Penguin, London 2000, pp. 81–100.
116. Voltaire, Essai sur les moeurs et l’esprit des nations, Tome 1 in Oeuvres complètes, vol. 15, Dupont, Paris 1823–7, pp. 269–86.
117. G. W. F. Hegel, Lectures on the Philosophy of World History, vol. 1: Manuscripts of the Introduction and the Lectures of 1822–23, ed. and trans. Robert F. Brown and Peter C. Hodgson, Clarendon Press, Oxford 2011, p. 212.
118. Gottfried Leibniz, Preface to Novissima Sinica: http://www.zftrans.com/bbs/read.php?tid=15696; see also Franklin Perkins, ‘The Theoretical Basis of Comparative Philosophy in Leibniz’ Writings on China’, in Wenchao Li and Hans Poser (eds), Das neueste über China. G. W. Leibnizens Novissima Sinica von 1697, Fran Steiner Verlag, Stuttgart 2000, p. 275.
119. David E. Mungello, The Great Encounter of China and the West, 1500–1800, Rowman & Littlefield, Lanham, MD 2009, pp. 19, 31, 100.
120. David Hume, ‘Of Commerce’, in David Hume, Selected Essays, Oxford University Press 2008, p. 164.
121. Pomeranz, The Making of a Hinterland, pp. 19–22.
122. Wu Chengming, ‘On Embryonic Capitalism in China’, in Xu Dixin and Wu Chengming (eds), Chinese Capitalism, 1522–1840, Macmillan, Basingstoke 2000, p. 19.
123. Fang Xing, ‘The Retarded Development of Capitalism’, in ibid, p. 395.
124. Hao and Wang, ‘Changing Chinese Views of Western Relations, 1840–95’, p. 175.
125. See Li, Agricultural Development in Jiangnan, ‘Conclusion’, and also Philip C. C. Huang, ‘The Paradigmatic Crisis in Chinese Studies: Paradoxes in Social and Economic History’, Modern China, vol. 17, no. 3, July 1991, pp. 299–341.
126. Michel Aglietta and Yves Landry, La Chine vers la superpuissance, Economica, Paris 2007, p. 1; World Bank data, World Development Indicators, retrieved 1 July 2014.
127. Moulder, Japan, China, and the Modern World Economy, p. 151.
128. Masao Maruyama, Studies in the Intellectual History of Tokugawa Japan, Princeton University Press 1974, pp. 327–30.
129. Ibid, p. 340.
130. Michio Morishima, Why Has Japan ‘Succeeded’? Western Technology and the Japanese Ethos, Cambridge University Press 1982, pp. 73, 75, 85.
131. Cited in W. G. Beasley, The Meiji Restoration, Stanford University Press 1972, pp. 266–7.
132. Cyril E. Black et al., The Modernization of Japan and Russia: A Comparative Study, Free Press, New York and London 1975, p. 42; Jean-Pierre Lehmann, The Roots of Modern Japan, Macmillan, London 1982, p. 142; E. Sidney Crawcour, ‘The Tokugawa Heritage’, in William W. Lockwood (ed.), The State and Economic Enterprise in Japan: Essays in the Political Economy of Growth, Princeton University Press 1965, p. 18.
133. W. J. Macpherson, The Economic Development of Japan c. 1868–1941, Macmillan, London 1987 pp. 24–31.
134. Tessa Morris-Suzuki, The Technological Transformation of Japan: From the Seventeenth to the Twenty-First Century, Cambridge University Press 1994, pp. 73–4.
135. Beasley, The Meiji Restoration, p. 74.
136. Lehmann, The Roots of Modern Japan c. 1868–1941, pp. 242–3.
137. Masao Maruyama, Thought and Behaviour in Modern Japanese Politics, Oxford University Press 1969, pp. 4–5.
138. Tsuzuki, The Pursuit of Power in Modern Japan, p. 151; Osterhammel, The Transformation of the World, p. 237.
139. Ian Neary, The State and Politics in Japan, Polity, Cambridge 2002, pp. 13–14; see also Morishima, Why Has Japan ‘Succeeded’?, p. 88; Lehmann, The Roots of Modern Japan, p. 186; Macpherson, The Economic Development of Japan, p. 36; on Boissonade see Alexis Dudden, Japan’s Colonization of Korea: Discourse and Power, University of Hawai‘i Press 2005, pp. 106–7.
140. Johannes Hirschmeier and Tsunehiko Yui, The Development of Japanese Business 1600– 1973, Harvard University Press 1975, pp. 75–6.
141. Neary, The State and Politics in Japan, pp. 15–16.
142. There is widespread agreement on this; see, inter alia, Hirschmeier and Yui, The Development of Japanese Business, 1600– 1973, p. 70.
143. E. Herbert Norman, Japan’s Emergence as a Modern State: Political and Economic Problems of the Meiji Period, UBC Press, Vancouver and Toronto 2000 (1st edition 1940), p. 46.
144. Ibid, p. 32.
145. Lehmann, The Roots of Modern Japan, pp. 267–8.
146. Jacques Pezeu-Massabuau, ‘Le Japon à l’ère mégalopolitaine: éclatement de l’espace traditionnel et insularité culturelle’, Annales, vol. 36, no. 5, September–October 1981, p. 831; Morishima, Why Has Japan ‘Succeeded’?, p. 20; Jacques Pezeu-Massabuau, ‘La notion d’emprise sur le milieu géographique: l’exemple japonais’, Annales, vol. 27, no. 1, January–February 1972; Morris-Suzuki, The Technological Transformation of Japan, p. 17.
147. Manjirō Inagaki, Japan and the Pacific, and a Japanese View of the Eastern Question, T. Fisher Unwin, London 1890, p. 43; he dedicated the book to John Robert Seeley.
148. Robert Thomas Tierney, Tropics of Savagery: The Culture of the Japanese Empire in Comparative Frame, University of California Press 2010, p. 16.
149. Morris-Suzuki, Re-Inventing Japan, p. 24.
150. Yukichi Fukuzawa, The Autobiography of Yukichi Fukuzawa, trans. Eiichi Kiyooka, Columbia University Press 2007, p. 135.
151. See Norio Tamaki, Yukichi Fukuzawa, 1835–1901: The Spirit of Enterprise in Modern Japan, Palgrave, Basingstoke 2001, pp. 90–91; see also Akira Iriye, ‘The Internationalization of History’, American Historical Review, vol. 94, no. 1, February 1989 p. 7; see also Fukuzawa, The Autobiography of Yukichi Fukuzawa, pp. 373–9.
152. Tierney, Tropics of Savagery, pp. 27–8.
153. Fukuzawa, The Autobiography of Yukichi Fukuzawa, pp. 104, 116–17.
154. Norman, Japan’s Emergence as a Modern State, pp. 176–7n.
155. Marius B. Jansen, China in the Tokugawa World, Harvard University Press 1992, p. 101.
156. Jansen, ‘Japan and the Chinese Revolution of 1911’, p. 342.
157. David S. Landes, ‘Japan and Europe: Contrasts in Industrialization’, in Lockwood (ed.), The State and Economic Enterprise in Japan, pp. 93–7.
158. Jansen, The Making of Modern Japan, p. 373.
159. Alvin Y. So and Stephen W. K. Chiu, East Asia and the World Economy, Sage, London 1995, pp. 74–5.
160. Lehmann, The Roots of Modern Japan, pp. 173– 7.
161. Landes, ‘Japan and Europe: Contrasts in Industrialization’, pp. 101, 106–7, 115.
162. Norman, Japan’s Emergence as a Modern State, p. 111.
163. Moulder, Japan, China, and the Modern World Economy, p. 179.
164. Lehmann, The Roots of Modern Japan, p. 209.
165. Macpherson, The Economic Development of Japan , p. 35.
166. Tsuzuki, The Pursuit of Power in Modern Japan, p. 141, and Macpherson, The Economic Development of Japan, p. 34.
167. Tsuzuki, The Pursuit of Power in Modern Japan, p. 143.
168. Fukuzawa, The Autobiography of Yukichi Fukuzawa, p. 190.
169. Lehmann, The Roots of Modern Japan, p. 180.
170. Tsuzuki, The Pursuit of Power in Modern Japan, p. 138.
171. Macpherson, The Economic Development of Japan, p. 24.
172. Moulder, Japan, China, and the Modern World Economy, p. 179.
173. Morishima, Why Has Japan ‘Succeeded’?, p. 60.
174. E. Sidney Crawcour, ‘The Tokugawa Heritage’, in Lockwood (ed.), The State and Economic Enterprise in Japan, pp. 42–3.
175. Kenneth B. Pyle, ‘The Future of Japanese Nationality: An Essay in Contemporary History’, Journal of Japanese Studies, vol. 8, no. 2. Summer 1982, pp. 238–9
.
176. YasuzōHorie, ‘Modern Entrepreneurship in Meiji Japan’, in Lockwood (ed.), The State and Economic Enterprise in Japan, p. 198.
177. Norman, Japan’s Emergence as a Modern State, p. 71.
178. Ibid, pp. 7–8, 30. See also Hirschmeier and Yui, The Development of Japanese Business, 1600–1973, p. 1.
179. Hirschmeier and Yui, The Development of Japanese Business, 1600–1973, pp. 82–6.
180. Ibid, pp. 95–6.
181. Ibid, pp. 88–91.
182. Gary P. Leupp, Servants, Shophands, and Laborers in the Cities of Tokugawa Japan, Princeton University Press 1992, p. 176.
183. R. P. Dore, ‘Talent and the Social Order in Tokugawa Japan’, Past & Present, no. 21, April 1962, pp. 60–68.
184. E. Sidney Crawcour, ‘The Tokugawa Heritage’, in Lockwood (ed.), The State and Economic Enterprise in Japan, p. 34; such arguments had been advanced by T. C. Smith, Agrarian Origins of Modern Japan (1959), esp. pp. 71–2, 123. But this has been contested: see Bramall and Nolan, ‘Introduction’ to Chinese Capitalism, 1522–1840, pp. xxxiv–xxxv.
185. Cited in Akira Iriye, Pacific Estrangement: Japanese and American Expansion, 1897–1911, Harvard University Press 1972, p. 9.
186. Helena Hirata and Kurumi Sugita, ‘Politique paternaliste et division sexuelle du travail: le cas de l’industrie japonaise’, Le Mouvement Social, no. 144, July–September 1988, p. 75.
187. Christine Lévy, ‘La naissance du mouvement ouvrier moderne au Japon’, in Claude Hamon (ed.), Entreprise et société dans le Japon d’avant-guerre, Philippe Piquier, Arles 2011, p. 104; Hirschmeier and Yui, The Development of Japanese Business, 1600–1973, p. 110; Lehmann, The Roots of Modern Japan, p. 206.
188. Lehmann, The Roots of Modern Japan, p. 206; Tsuzuki, The Pursuit of Power in Modern Japan, p. 142.
189. Macpherson, The Economic Development of Japan, p. 18; Lehmann, The Roots of Modern Japan, p. 192, has slightly different figures; Moulder, Japan, China, and the Modern World Economy, pp. 183–8.
190. So and Chiu, East Asia and the World Economy, p. 53; also cited in Giovanni Arrighi, Adam Smith in Beijing: Lineages of the Twenty-First Century, Verso, London 2007, p. 342.
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