191. Wu Chengming, ‘A Brief Account of the Development of Capitalism in China’, in Tim Wright (ed.), The Chinese Economy in the Early Twentieth Century: Recent Chinese Studies, St Martin’s Press, New York, 1992, p. 30.
4. The Allure of Industry
1. Osman Okyar, ‘A New Look at the Problem of Economic Growth in the Ottoman Empire (1800–1914)’, Journal of European Economic History, vol. 16, no. 1, Spring 1987, pp. 13–14.
2. Finkel, Osman’s Dream, pp. 442–3.
3. Catherine Durandin, Histoire des Roumains, Fayard, Paris 1995, p. 101.
4. Selim Deringil, The Well-Protected Domains: Ideology and the Legitimation of Power in the Ottoman Empire, 1876–1909, I. B. Tauris, London and New York 1998, p. 135.
5. Finkel, Osman’s Dream, p. 499.
6. Ariel Salzmann, ‘Citizens in Search of a State: The Limits of Political Participation in the Late Ottoman Empire’, in Michael Hanagan and Charles Tilly (eds), Extending Citizenship, Reconfiguring States, Rowman & Littlefield, Lanham, MD 1999, pp. 45–6.
7. Engin Deniz Akarli, ‘The Tangled Ends of an Empire: Ottoman Encounters with the West and Problems of Westernization – an Overview’, Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East, vol. 26, no. 3, 2006, p. 357.
8. Şevket Pamuk, The Ottoman Empire and European Capitalism, 1820–1913: Trade, Investment and Production, Cambridge University Press 1987, pp. 13–14, 82ff.
9. Giampaolo Conte and Gaetano Sabatini, ‘The Ottoman External Debt and its Features Under European Financial Control (1881–1914)’, Journal of European Economic History, vol. 43, no. 3, 2014, pp. 69–96.
10. Pamuk, The Ottoman Empire and European Capitalism, 1820–1913, p. 61.
11. M. Şükrü Hanioğlu, Preparation for a Revolution: The Young Turks, 1902–1908, Oxford University Press 2001, esp. pp. 302– 6.
12. Pamuk, The Ottoman Empire and European Capitalism 1820–1913, p. 83.
13. Finkel, Osman’s Dream, pp. 504–9.
14. bertrand Badie, L’état importé. Essai sur l’occidentalisation de l’ordre politique, Fayard, Paris 1992, pp. 128, 168, 178ff.
15. Pavel Milyukov (Paul Milyoukov), Russia and its Crisis, University of Chicago Press 1905, p. 51: http://archive.org/stream/russiaitscrisis00miliuoft#page/n3/mode/2up
16. Hitchins, Rumania, pp. 292–4.
17. Durandin, Histoire des Roumains, p. 192.
18. John Michael Montias, ‘Notes on the Romanian Debate on Sheltered Industrialization: 1860– 1906’, in Kenneth Jowitt (ed.), Social Change in Romania, 1860–1940: A Debate on Development in a European Nation, University of California Press 1978, p. 60.
19. Iván T. Berend and György Ránki, The European Periphery and Industrialization, 1780–1914, Cambridge University Press 1982, p. 42.
20. Andrew C. Janos, ‘Modernization and Decay in Historical Perspective: The Case of Romania’, in Kenneth Jowitt (ed.), Social Change in Romania, 1860–1940, p. 84.
21. Ibid, p. 89.
22. Daniel Chirot, Social Change in a Peripheral Society: The Creation of a Balkan Colony, Academic Press, New York 1976, p. 144.
23. Dan Berindei, ‘The Nineteenth Century’, in Dinu C. Giurescu and Stephen Fischer-Galaţi (eds), Romania: A Historic Perspective, East European Monographs, Boulder, CO, distributed by Columbia University Press 1998, p. 225.
24. Janos, ‘Modernization and Decay in Historical Perspective’, p. 98.
25. Iordachi, ‘The Unyielding Boundaries of Citizenship’, pp. 162–3.
26. Janos, ‘Modernization and Decay in Historical Perspective’, p. 93.
27. Ibid, pp. 100, 85.
28. Hitchins, Rumania, pp. 23–7.
29. Hippolyte Desprez, ‘La Moldo-Valachie et le mouvement roumain’, Revue des deux mondes, vol. 21, 1848, p. 112.
30. Hitchins, Rumania, p. 138.
31. Chirot, Social Change in a Peripheral Society, pp. 123, 130, 133. On the agrarian reform of 1864, see Durandin, Histoire des Roumains, pp. 164–6.
32. Daniel Chirot and Charles Ragin, ‘The Market, Tradition and Peasant Rebellion: The Case of Romania in 1907’, American Sociological Review, vol. 40, no. 4, August 1975, pp. 430–31.
33. Jeremy Attack, Fred Bateman, and William N. Parker, ‘The Farm, the Farmer, and the Market’, in Stanley L. Engerman and Robert E. Gallman (eds), The Cambridge Economic History of the United States, vol. 2: The Long Nineteenth Century, Cambridge University Press 2000, p. 257.
34. Simmel, ‘The Metropolis and Mental Life’, in Simmel on Culture, ed. Frisby and Featherstone, p. 176.
35. Iván T. Berend and György Ránki, ‘Underdevelopment in Europe in the Context of East-West Relations in the Nineteenth Century’, in Études historiques hongroises, ed. Dezső Nemes, Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest 1980, p. 703.
36. Hitchins, Rumania, pp. 112–13; Durandin, Histoire des Roumains, pp. 183–7.
37. Durandin, Histoire des Roumains, p. 188.
38. Hitchins, Rumania, pp. 155–7.
39. Chirot, Social Change in a Peripheral Society, pp. 145, 148.
40. Walter Benjamin, On the Concept of History, Gesammelten Schriften I:2. Suhrkamp Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 1974, Thesis 9, 1940: http://members.efn.org/~dredmond/ThesesonHistory.html
41. Durandin, Histoire des Roumains, pp. 205–6.
42. On Spiru Haret see Irina Livezeanu, Cultural Politics in Greater Romania, Cornell University Press 1995, pp. 31–3.
43. Andrew C. Janos, East Central Europe in the Modern World: The Politics of the Borderlands from Pre- to Postcommunism, Stanford University Press 2000, pp. 77–8, 83–5.
44. Ibid, p. 91.
45. Victor Bulmer-Thomas, The Economic History of Latin America since Independence, Cambridge University Press 2003, pp. 53, 58, 72, and 74.
46. Ibid, p. 142.
47. William Glade, ‘Latin America and the International Economy, 1870– 1914’, in Bethell (ed.), The Cambridge History of Latin America, vol. IV, p. 12.
48. Angus Maddison, Historical Statistics of the World Economy: 1–2008 AD. Essays in Macro-Economic History, Oxford University Press 2007.
49. Lehmann, The Roots of Modern Japan, pp. 192–4.
50. Bulmer-Thomas, The Economic History of Latin America since Independence, p. 128.
51. See Colin M. Lewis, ‘Industry in Latin America before 1930’, in Bethell (ed.), The Cambridge History of Latin America, vol. IV, pp. 277– 8.
52. Claudio Robles-Ortiz, ‘Agrarian Capitalism and Rural Labour: The Hacienda System in Central Chile, 1870–1920’, Journal of Latin American Studies, vol. 41, no. 3, August 2009, pp. 493–526.
53. Aurora Gómez-Galvarriato and Jeffrey G. Williamson, ‘Was it Prices, Productivity or Policy? Latin American Industrialisation after 1870’, Journal of Latin American Studies, vol. 41, no. 4, November 2009, pp. 668–9.
54. Bulmer-Thomas, The Economic History of Latin America since Independence, p. 59; Glade, ‘Latin America and the International Economy’, pp. 16–17.
55. Andrés Guerrero, ‘Naissance des bourgeoisies latino-américaines au XXe siècle: le cas de l’Équateur’, Annales, vol. 35, no. 6, November–December 1980, p. 1,172.
56. José Luis González, Nuestra crisis y el Fondo Monetario Internacional, p. 122, cited in Charles Anderson, Politics and Economic Change in Latin America, D. Van Nostrand Co., Princeton, NJ 1967, p. 28.
57. Glade, ‘Latin America and the International Economy’, pp. 7, 19, 48; see also Lewis, ‘Industry in Latin America before 1930’, pp. 268–70.
58. Charles A. Hale, ‘Political and Social Ideas in Latin America, 1870–1930’, in Bethell (ed.), The Cambridge History of Latin America, vol. IV, p. 414.
59. José Enrique Rodó, Ariel, ed. Belén Castro, Cátedra, Madrid 2000, pp. 180, 207, 215.
60. Bulmer-Thomas, The Economic History of Latin America since Independence, pp. 14–17. After the 1980s there was a return to export-led growth. See also Duncan Green, Silent Revolution: The Rise and Crisis of Market Economics in Latin Ameri
ca, Monthly Review Press, New York 2003, p. 11.
61. Joel Stillerman and Peter Winn, ‘Introduction: Globalization and the Latin American Workplace’, International Labor and Working-Class History, vol. 70, Fall 2006, p. 1.
62. Bulmer-Thomas, The Economic History of Latin America since Independence, p. 49.
63. Glade, ‘Latin America and the International Economy’, pp. 2–3.
64. Nicola Crepax, ‘Tradizione Lombarda, industria tessile e sviluppo economico’, in Luciano Cafagna and Nicola Crepax (eds), Atti di intelligenza e sviluppo economico. Saggi per il bicentenario della nascita di Carlo Cattaneo, Il Mulino, Bologna 2001, p. 244.
65. Giuliano Procacci, La lotta di classe in Italia agli inizi del secolo XX, Riuniti, Rome 1978, p. 8.
66. Stefano Musso, ‘La famiglia operaia’, in Piero Melograni (ed.), La famiglia italiana dall’ottocento a oggi, Laterza, Rome-Bari 1988, pp. 61–3.
67. Vera Zamagni, The Economic History of Italy, 1860–1990, Clarendon Press, Oxford 1993, pp. 81–2.
68. Francesco Barbagallo, Napoli, Belle Époque, Laterza, Rome-Bari 2015, p. 41.
69. Whether a form of serfdom existed in Tibet is controversial: see Melvyn C. Goldstein, who uses the term ‘pervasive serfdom’ in ‘Serfdom and Mobility: An Examination of the Institution of “Human Lease” in Traditional Tibetan Society’, Journal of Asian Studies, vol. 30, no. 3, May 1971, p. 521.
70. Jerome Blum, The End of the Old Order in Rural Europe, Princeton University Press 1978, pp. 377–86; Nicolas Spulber, Russia’s Economic Transitions: From Late Tsarism to the New Millennium, Cambridge University Press 2003, p. 53.
71. Nicos P. Mouzelis, Modern Greece: Facets of Underdevelopment, Macmillan, London 1978, p. 15.
72. Ibid, p. 21.
73. Vassilis K. Fouskas and Constantine Dimoulas, Greece, Financialization and the European Union, Palgrave Macmillan, London 2013, p. 65.
74. The Economist, 17 October 2015: http://www.economist.com/news/economic-and-financial-indicators/21674507-merchant-fleets
75. Dertilis, ‘Introduction’, in Dertilis (ed.), Banquiers, usuriers et paysans, pp. 18, 28.
76. Albert Broder, Gérard Chastagnaret, and Émile Temime, ‘Capital et croissance dans l’Espagne du XIXème siècle’, in Jean-Pierre Amalric et al., Aux origines du retard économique de l’Espagne, XVIe–XIXe siècles, CNRS, Paris 1983, p. 64.
77. Ibid, pp. 64–73.
78. Charles Harvey and Peter Taylor, ‘Mineral Wealth and Economic Development: Foreign Direct Investment in Spain, 1851–1913’, Economic , vol. 40, no. 2, 1987, pp. 186–7.
79. Gabriel Tortella, The Development of Modern Spain: An Economic History of the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries, Harvard University Press 2000, pp. 75ff.
80. Harvey and Taylor, ‘Mineral Wealth and Economic Development’, p. 187.
81. Tortella Casares, The Development of Modern Spain, pp. 74, 89, 114.
82. Gabriel Tortella, ‘Patterns of Economic Retardation and Recovery in South-Western Europe in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries’, Economic History Review, vol. 47, 1994, p. 5.
83. Bairoch, ‘Niveaux de développement économique de 1810 à 1910’, Annales, pp. 1,110, 1,092. The data were only for these eleven countries, but it is very unlikely that any other country would have warranted placement in the top eleven. This author is also careful to question some of the statistics available, in particular the low placement of Japan.
84. Bairoch, ‘La Suisse dans le contexte international aux XIXe et XXe siècles’, in Bairoch and Körner (eds), La Suisse dans l’économie mondiale, p. 106.
85. Lars G. Sandberg, ‘The Case of the Impoverished Sophisticate: Human Capital and Swedish Economic Growth before World War I’, Journal of Economic History, vol. 39, no. 1, March 1979, p. 225.
86. Paul Bairoch, ‘International Industrialization Levels from 1750 to 1980’, Journal of European Economic History, vol. 11, no. 2, Fall 1982, p. 293.
5. The State
1. Cited in P. H. Clendenning, ‘The Economic Awakening of Russia in the 18th Century’, Journal of European Economic History, vol. 14, no. 3, Winter 1985, p. 470.
2. Ian Inkster, ‘Technological and Industrial Change: A Comparative Essay’, in The Cambridge History of Science, vol. 4, ed. Roy Porter, Cambridge University Press 2003, p. 862.
3. Malcolm Yapp, ‘Europe in the Turkish mirror’, Past & Present, no. 137, 1992, p. 154.
4. Yen-P’ing Hao and Erh-min Wang, ‘Changing Chinese Views of Western Relations, 1840–95’, in Fairbank and Liu (eds), The Cambridge History of China, vol. 11, p. 193.
5. Moulder, Japan, China, and the Modern World Economy, pp. 189–90.
6. This is the line taken by Charles Tilly in his ‘War Making and State Making as Organized Crime’, in Bringing the State Back In, ed. Peter B. Evans, Dietrich Rueschemeyer, and Theda Skocpol, Cambridge University Press 1985.
7. John Williamson, ‘What Washington Means by Policy Reform’, in Latin American Adjustment: How Much Has Happened?, ed. John Williamson, Institute for International Economics, Washington, DC 1989.
8. Adam Przeworski, ‘The Last Instance: Are Institutions the Primary Cause of Economic Development?’, Archives européennes de sociologie, vol. xlv, no. 2, 2004, p. 166.
9. Robert Wade, ‘Financial Regime Change?’, New Left Review, no. 53, September/October 2008, p.19; Arrighi, Adam Smith in Beijing, pp. 354–5.
10. Martin Wolf, ‘How the Beijing Elite Sees the World’, Financial Times, 2 May 2018.
11. Jean-Charles Asselain, ‘L’expérience chinoise en perspective historique. Un regard occidental’, Revue d’études comparative Est-Ouest, vol. 30, nos 2–3, 1999, pp. 328, 353–4.
12. Chenggang Xu and Juzhong Zhuang, ‘Why China Grew: The Role of Decentralization’, in Peter Boone, Stanislaw Gomulka, and Richard Layard (eds), Emerging from Communism: Lessons from Russia, China and Eastern Europe, MIT 1998, pp. 183–7.
13. Ha-Joon Chang, Kicking Away the Ladder: Development Strategy in Historical Perspective, Anthem Press, London 2003, pp. 120–21; Joseph E. Stiglitz, ‘Is there a Post-Washington Consensus Consensus?’, in The Washington Consensus Reconsidered: Towards a New Global Governance, ed. Narcís Serra and Joseph E. Stiglitz, Oxford University Press 2008, p. 43.
14. Stiglitz, ‘Is there a Post-Washington Consensus Consensus?’, p. 44.
15. William J. Baumol, Robert E. Litan, and Carl J. Schramm, Good Capitalism, Bad Capitalism and the Economics of Growth and Prosperity, Yale University Press 2007, pp. 7–8.
16. Romain Duval, ‘Le rôle de l’idéologie et des croyances dans l’économie politique’, Revue d’économie politique, vol. 117, no. 4, July–August 2007, p. 594.
17. Frederick (Friedrich) List, National System of Political Economy (1841), trans. G. A. Matile, J. B. Lippincott & Co., Philadelphia, PA 1856, p. 267.
18. Ibid, p. 109.
19. Ibid, p. 262.
20. Ibid, p. 200.
21. Emma Rothschild, Economic Sentiments: Adam Smith, Condorcet and the Enlightenment, Harvard University Press 2001, p. 116.
22. Adam Smith, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, Penn State Electronic Classics 2005, pp. 363–4: http://www2.hn.psu.edu/faculty/jmanis/adam-smith/Wealth-Nations.pdf
23. Donald Winch, ‘Adam Smith’s “enduring particular result”: A Political and Cosmopolitan Perspective’, in Istvan Hont and Michael Ignatieff (eds), Wealth and Virtue: The Shaping of Political Economy in the Scottish Enlightenment, Cambridge University Press 1983, pp. 264–5.
24. Smith, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, p. 111.
25. Ibid, p. 83.
26. Angus Maddison, Contours of the World Economy, 1–2030 AD: Essays in Macro-Economic History, Oxford University Press 2007, p. 381.
27. Smith, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, p. 697.
28. Marina Lewycka, Various Pets Alive and Dead, Penguin/Fig Tree, London 2012, p. 61.
29.
The full subtitle of Jean-Baptiste Say’s Cours complet d’économie politique pratique (1829) was ouvrage destiné à mettre sous les yeux des hommes d’État, des propriétaires fonciers et des capitalistes, des savans, des agriculteurs, des manufacturiers, des négocians, et en général de tous les citoyens l’économie des sociétés, vol. 5.
30. Cited in Rothschild, Economic Sentiments, pp. 127–8; for the fuller citation see Smith, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, p. 213.
31. Smith, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, p. 602.
32. Ibid, pp. 537–8.
33. Keynes, The General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money, pp. 46, 104.
34. Alexander Pushkin, Yevgeny Onegin, trans. Anthony Briggs, Pushkin Press, London 2016, p. 56.
35. Rothschild, Economic Sentiments, p. 81.
36. Colin J. Holmes, ‘Laissez-Faire in Theory and Practice: Britain 1800–1875’, Journal of European Economic History, vol. 5, no. 3, Winter 1976, p. 674.
37. Smith, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, p. 337.
38. David Hume, ‘Of the Balance of Trade’, in David Hume, Selected Essays, Oxford University Press 2008, p. 201.
39. John Stuart Mill, Principles of Political Economy (1848), Longmans, Green and Co., London 1904, p. 480; see also Pedro Schwartz, The New Political Economy of J. S. Mill, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, London 1972, p. 116, and, more generally, the whole of Chapter 6.
40. Eugenio F. Biagini, Liberty, Retrenchment and Reform: Popular Liberalism in the Age of Gladstone, 1860– 1880, Cambridge University Press 1992, pp. 166–7.
41. Edmund Burke, Thoughts and Details on Scarcity, originally presented to the Right Hon. William Pitt, in the month of November 1795, F. and C. Rivington, London 1800, pp. 45–6: https://archive.org/stream/thoughtsanddeta00pittgoog#page/n5/mode/2up
42. John Maynard Keynes, ‘The End of Laissez-Faire’ (1926), in Essays in Persuasion, Macmillan 1972, p. 288. Keynes quotes Burke from one of the later editions of McCulloch’s Principles of Political Economy, repeating McCulloch’s mistake of writing ‘exertion’ instead of ‘discretion’ as Burke had written.
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