The Anxious Triumph

by Donald Sassoon

  66. Hitchins, Rumania, p. 163.

  67. McCormack, ‘Civilising the Urban Other’, p. 30; see also Tsuzuki, The Pursuit of Power in Modern Japan, 1825–1995, p. 149.

  68. McCormack, ‘Civilising the Urban Other’, pp. 30–31.

  69. Leroy-Beaulieu, Essai sur la repartition des richesses et sur la tendance à une moindre inégalité des conditions, p. iii.

  70. See discussion in Delalande, Les batailles de l’impôt, pp. 229–30.

  71. Thomas Piketty, Gilles Postel-Vinay, and Jean-Laurent Rosenthal, ‘Wealth Concentration in a Developing Economy: Paris and France, 1807–1994’, American Economic Review, vol. 96, no. 1, March 2006, p. 239.

  72. Ibid, p. 243.

  73. Lincoln’s speech can be accessed at: http://www.abrahamlincolnonline.org/lincoln/speeches/fair.htm

  74. Andrew Carnegie, ‘Wealth’, North American Review, no. 148, June 1889, p. 654.

  75. Ibid, p. 660.

  11. A Yearning for Democracy Sweeps the World

  1. Donald Quataert, ‘The Economic Climate of the “Young Turk Revolution” in 1908’, Journal of Modern History, vol. 51, no. 3, p. 1,147.

  2. Fikret Adanir, ‘Turkey’s Entry into the Concert of Europe’, European Review, vol. 13, no. 3, 2005, p. 407.

  3. Dustūr. Aperçu sur les constitutions des états arabes et islamiques, Brill, Leiden 1966, p. 12 – this is the reprint of the entry Dustuūr in the Encyclopédie de l’Islam.

  4. Nader Sohrabi, Revolution and Constitutionalism in the Ottoman Empire and Iran , Cambridge University Press 2011, pp. 41–2.

  5. Salzmann, ‘Citizens in Search of a State’, p. 51; Sohrabi, Revolution and Constitutionalism in the Ottoman Empire and Iran, pp. 49–50.

  6. Quataert, ‘The Economic Climate of the “Young Turk Revolution”, pp. 1,148–9.

  7. Deniz Kandiyoti, ‘End of Empire: Islam, Nationalism and Women in Turkey’, in Deniz Kandiyoti (ed.), Women, Islam and the State, Temple University Press 1991, p. 29.

  8. Dustuūr, p. 15.

  9. Erik-Jan Zürcher, ‘Ottoman Sources of Kemalist Thought’, in Elisabeth Özdalga (ed.), Late Ottoman Society: The Intellectual Legacy, Routledge, New York 2005, p. 18.

  10. Andrew Roberts, Salisbury: Victorian Titan, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, London 1999, p. 691.

  11. Salzmann, ‘Citizens in Search of a State’, p. 55.

  12. Sohrabi, Revolution and Constitutionalism in the Ottoman Empire and Iran, p. 319.

  13. Ibid, p. 334; see also Nikki R. Keddie, Roots of Revolution: An Interpretive History of Modern Iran, Yale University Press 1981, p. 72.

  14. Said Amir Arjomand, The Turban for the Crown: The Islamic Revolution in Iran, Oxford University Press 1988, pp. 37–8.

  15. Keddie, Roots of Revolution, p. 77.

  16. Sohrabi, Revolution and Constitutionalism in the Ottoman Empire and Iran, p. 336.

  17. Arjomand, The Turban for the Crown, pp. 34–6.

  18. Keddie, Roots of Revolution, p. 73.

  19. Ibid, p. 64.

  20. Mansour Bonakdarian, Britain and the Iranian Constitutional Revolution of 1906–1911: Foreign Policy, Imperialism, and Dissent, Syracuse University Press 2006, p. 167.

  21. This was W. Morgan Shuster’s verdict; see The Strangling of Persia, p. 21.

  22. Robert A. McDaniel, The Shuster Mission and the Persian Constitutional Revolution, Bibliotheca Islamica, Minneapolis 1974, pp. 75–88.

  23. Platt, Finance, Trade, and Politics in British Foreign Policy, 1815–1914, pp. 234–5.

  24. Christopher N. B. Ross, ‘Lord Curzon and E. G. Browne Confront the “Persian Question”’, Historical Journal, vol. 52, no. 2, 2009, p. 390.

  25. Ibid, p. 399.

  26. Edward G. Browne, The Persian Revolution of 1905–1909, Cambridge University Press 1910, p. xx.

  27. McDaniel, The Shuster Mission, p. 114.

  28. Ibid, p. 125; Mariam Habibi, L’interface France-Iran 1907–1938. Une diplomatie voilée, L’Harmattan, Paris 2004, p. 55.

  29. Shuster, The Strangling of Persia, p. 166.

  30. Ibid, pp. 175–6.

  31. Ibid, p. 192.

  32. This is the thesis developed by Jean Batou in ‘L’Égypte de Muhammad-‘Ali: pouvoir politique et développement économique’, Annales, vol. 46, no. 2, 1991, pp. 401–28; but see also Beckert, Empire of Cotton, p. 166.

  33. P. J. Vatikiotis, The Modern History of Egypt, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, London 1969, pp. 58–60.

  34. Ibid, pp. 62–5.

  35. Beckert, Empire of Cotton, p. 169.

  36. Vatikiotis, The Modern History of Egypt, pp. 87, 75.

  37. Wael Abu-‘Uksa, Freedom in the Arab World: Concepts and Ideologies in Arabic Thought in the Nineteenth Century, Cambridge University Press 2016, pp. 50–54.

  38. Roger Owen, Lord Cromer: Victorian Imperialist, Edwardian Proconsul, Oxford University Press 2004, p. 236.

  39. Letter of 14 December 1887, cited in ibid, p. 246.

  40. Ibid, pp. 265–7.

  41. Ibid, p. 273.

  42. Ibid, p. 311.

  43. William M. Welch, Jr., No Country for a Gentleman: British Rule in Egypt, 1883–1907, Greenwood Press, Westport, CT 1988, p. 8.

  44. Lewis, Authoritarian Regimes in Latin America, pp. 17–18.

  45. Alan Knight, The Mexican Revolution, vol. 2: Counter-Revolution and Reconstruction, Cambridge University Press 1986, p. 494.

  46. Hale, The Transformation of Liberalism in Late Nineteenth-Century Mexico, p. 4.

  47. Henry Lane Wilson, ‘Errors with Reference to Mexico and Events that have Occurred There’, Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, vol. 54, July 1914, p. 148.

  48. François-Xavier Guerra, Le Mexique. De l’Ancien Régime à la Révolution, vol. 2, L’Harmattan, Paris 1985, p. 305.

  49. Ibid, p. 310.

  50. Helga Baitenmann, ‘Popular Participation in State Formation: Land Reform in Revolutionary Mexico’, Journal of Latin American Studies, vol. 43, no. 1, February 2011, pp. 4, 11.

  51. Knight, The Mexican Revolution, p. 496.

  52. Guy Hermet, Les populismes dans le monde. Une histoire sociologique (XIXe–XXe siècle), Fayard, Paris 2001, pp. 209–10.

  53. Michael M. Hall and Hobart A. Spalding, Jr., ‘The Urban Working Class and Early Latin American Labour Movements, 1880–1930’, in Bethell (ed.), The Cambridge History of Latin America, vol. IV, pp. 326– 7.

  54. Roberts, Salisbury, p. 692.

  55. Evelyne LÓpez-Campillo, La crise de 1898, Éditions Messene, Paris 1999, p. 17.

  56. Ibid, p. 50.

  57. Maurice Zimmermann, ‘La ruine de l’empire colonial espagnol. Ses conséquences’, Annales de Géographie, vol. 8, no. 37, 1899, pp. 93–4.

  58. See Pedro Fraile and Álvaro Escribano, ‘The Spanish 1898 Disaster: The Drift towards National-Protectionism’, October 1997: http://e-archivo.uc3m.es/bitstream/10016/4126/1/wh980301.pdf

  59. LÓpez-Campillo, La crise de 1898, pp. 56, 60.

  60. Ibid, p. 41.

  61. Cited in Richard Pipes, Russian Conservatism and its Critics: A Study in Political Culture, Yale University Press 2005, p. 116.

  62. Loren David Calder, The Political Thought of Yu. F. Samarin, 1840–1864, Garland, New York 1987, p. 242.

  63. Nathaniel Knight, ‘Was the Intelligentsia Part of the Nation? Visions of Society in Post-Emancipation Russia’, Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History, vol .7, no. 4, Fall 2006, p. 735.

  64. Louise McReynolds, The News under Russia’s Old Regime, Princeton University Press 1991, p. 5.

  65. Ibid, p. 204.

  66. For the German antecedent of the word see Richard Pipes, ‘“Intelligentsia” from the German “Intelligenz”? A Note’, Slavic Review, vol. 30, no. 3, September 1971, pp. 615–18.

  67. Cited in Pipes, Russian Conservatism and its Critics, p. 140.

  68. Konstantin P. Pobedonostsev, Reflections of a Russian Statesman, trans. Robert Crozier Long, Grant Richards, London 1898, p. 27.


  69. Berdyaev, The Origin of Russian Communism, p. 156.

  70. Cited in Walicki, A History of Russian Thought, p. 297.

  71. Lyashchenko, History of the National Economy of Russia to the 1917 Revolution, p. 548.

  72. Ibid, p. 549.

  73. Sally A. Boniece, ‘The Spiridonova Case, 1906: Terror, Myth, and Martyrdom’, in Anthony Anemone (ed.), Just Assassins: The Culture of Terrorism in Russia, Northwestern University Press 2010, p. 128.

  74. Ibid, p. 151.

  75. Witte, Memoirs, p. 190.

  76. Fyodor Dostoyevsky, The Diary of a Writer, p. 960, emphasis in the text; see also Knight, ‘Was the Intelligentsia Part of the Nation?’, p. 734.

  77. Abraham Ascher, The Revolution of 1905: Russia in Disarray, Stanford University Press 1988, p. 54.

  78. Witte, Memoirs, p. 367.

  79. Ibid, pp. 389–90.

  80. Ascher, The Revolution of 1905, pp. 71–2.

  81. Milyukov, Russia and its Crisis, p. 296.

  82. Ibid, pp. 327–8.

  83. Ascher, The Revolution of 1905, pp. 87–9.

  84. Hugh Seton-Watson, The Russian Empire, 1801–1917, Clarendon Press, Oxford 1967, p. 608.

  85. Tim McDaniel, Autocracy, Capitalism, and Revolution in Russia, University of California Press 1988, pp. 58–9.

  86. Rieber, Merchants and Entrepreneurs in Imperial Russia, pp. 346–7.

  87. Ibid, p. 278.

  88. V. V. Shelokhaev, ‘The Liberal Reform Model in Early Twentieth-Century Russia’, Russian Studies in History, vol. 42, no. 4, Spring 2004, pp. 29–33.

  89. See text in Ascher, The Revolution of 1905, p. 229.

  90. Witte, Memoirs, p. 312.

  91. Figes, A People’s Tragedy, p. 201.

  92. Witte, Memoirs, p. 181.

  93. David J. A. Macey, Government and Peasant in Russia, 1861–1906: The Prehistory of the Stolypin Reforms, Northern Illinois University Press 1987, p. 37.

  94. Ascher, The Revolution of 1905, p. 43.

  95. Ibid, p. 93.

  96. Figes, A People’s Tragedy, p. 216.

  97. Ascher, The Revolution of 1905, p. 301.

  98. Ibid, p. 318.

  99. Ibid, p. 366.

  100. Wayne Dowler, Russia in 1913, Northern Illinois University Press 2010, pp. 140, 188, passim.

  12. Keeping the ‘Outsiders’ Out

  1. Milton Friedman, Why Government Is the Problem, Hoover Press, Stanford, CA 2013; originally the Wriston Lecture presented in New York City, 19 November 1991, under the auspices of the Manhattan Institute, p. 17.

  2. Alexei Miller, The Romanov Empire and Nationalism: Essays in the Methodology of Historical Research, Central European University Press, Budapest and New York 2008, p. 115.

  3. Nicholas Khristianovich Bunge, The Years 1881–1894 in Russia: A Memorandum Found in the Papers of N. Kh. Bunge. A Translation and Commentary, ed. George E. Snow, in Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, vol. 71, part 6, Philadelphia, PA 1981, pp. 26–33.

  4. Joshua D. Zimmerman, Poles, Jews, and the Politics of Nationality, University of Wisconsin Press 2004, p. 16; the figures are based on the 1897 census, the only census in Tsarist Russia.

  5. Gregory L. Freeze, ‘Reform and Counter Reform 1855–1890’, in Gregory L. Freeze (ed.), Russia: A History, Oxford University Press 2009, p. 223.

  6. Ibid, p. 222; see also Miller, The Romanov Empire and Nationalism, p. 116.

  7. Benjamin Nathans, Beyond the Pale: The Jewish Encounter with Late Imperial Russia, University of California Press 2004, p. 4.

  8. Schorske, Fin-de-Siècle Vienna, p. 129.

  9. Dostoyevsky, The Diary of a Writer, p. 651, his emphasis, see also his diatribe on the Jewish Question on pp. 637–59.

  10. Cited in Nathans, Beyond the Pale, p. 129.

  11. Miller, The Romanov Empire and Nationalism, p. 118.

  12. Michael Aronson, ‘The Anti-Jewish Pogroms in Russia in 1881’, in John D. Klier and Shlomo Lambroza (eds), Pogroms: Anti-Jewish Violence in Modern Russian History, Cambridge University Press 1992, p. 51.

  13. Aronson, ‘The Anti-Jewish Pogroms in Russia in 1881’, p. 55.

  14. Wynn, Workers, Strikes, and Pogroms, pp. 218–19.

  15. Caroline Humphrey, ‘Odessa: Pogroms in a Cosmopolitan City’, in Caroline Humphrey and Vera Skvirskaja (eds), Post-Cosmopolitan Cities: Explorations of Urban Coexistence, Berghahn Books, New York and Oxford 2012, pp. 36–41.

  16. Aronson, ‘The Anti-Jewish Pogroms in Russia in 1881’, pp. 44–5.

  17. Shlomo Lambroza, ‘The Pogroms of 1903–1906’, in Klier and Lambroza (eds), Pogroms, p. 200.

  18. Wynn, Workers, Strikes, and Pogroms, p. 200.

  19. Robert Weinberg, ‘The Pogrom of 1905 in Odessa: A Case Study’, in Klier and Lambroza (eds), Pogroms, p. 248.

  20. Miller, The Romanov Empire and Nationalism, pp. 122–3.

  21. See the website of the Israel Ministry of Immigrant Absorption: http://www.moia.gov.il/English/FeelingIsrael/AboutIsrael/Pages/aliya2.aspx

  22. Zeev Sternhell, The Founding Myths of Israel: Nationalism, Socialism, and the Making of the Jewish State, Princeton University Press 1997, p. 79.

  23. Arthur Koestler, Promise and Fulfilment: Palestine 1917–1949, Macmillan, New York 1949, p. 3.

  24. Patrick Wolfe, Traces of History: Elementary Structures of Race, Verso, London 2016, p. 216; see also David Waines, ‘The Failure of the Nationalist Resistance’, in The Transformation of Palestine: Essays on the Origin and Development of the Arab-Israeli Conflict, ed. Ibrahim Abu-Lughod, Northwestern University Press 1987, pp. 216–17.

  25. Andreas Kappeler, The Russian Empire: A Multi-Ethnic History, Longman, Harlow 2001, pp. 270–71, 307.

  26. Witte, Memoirs, pp. 378–9.

  27. Michael Ochs, ‘Tsarist Officialdom and Anti-Jewish Pogroms in Poland’, in Klier and Lambroza (eds), Pogroms, p. 170.

  28. Wynn, Workers, Strikes, and Pogroms, p. 36.

  29. Ibid, p. 44.

  30. Ibid, p. 63.

  31. Snyder, The Reconstruction of Nations, p. 57.

  32. Cited in Jonathan Frankel, Prophecy and Politics: Socialism, Nationalism, and the Russian Jews, 1862–1917, Cambridge University Press 1981, pp. 98–9.

  33. John Doyle Klier, Russians, Jews and the Pogroms of 1881–1882, Cambridge University Press 2011, pp. 166–9.

  34. Lars Fischer, The Socialist Response to Anti-Semitism in Imperial Germany, Cambridge University Press 2007, esp. pp. 41ff.

  35. Stefan Rohrbacher, ‘The “Hep Hep” Riots of 1819: Anti-Jewish Ideology, Agitation, and Violence’, in Christhard Hoffmann, Werner Bergmann, and Helmut Walser Smith (eds), Exclusionary Violence: Antisemitic Riots in Modern German History, University of Michigan Press 2002, pp. 23–4.

  36. See George Eliot, Impressions of Theophrastus Such, William Blackwood and Sons, Edinburgh and London 1879; this is the last essay by her imaginary scholar Theophrastus.

  37. Hans Rogger, ‘Conclusion and Overview’, in Klier and Lambroza (eds), Pogroms, p. 319.

  38. Kenneth D. Barkin, The Controversy over German Industrialization, 1890–1902, University of Chicago Press 1970, p. 159.

  39. Davies, God’s Playground: A History of Poland, vol. 2: 1795 to the Present, p. 52; see also Walicki, ‘The Troubling Legacy of Roman Dmowski’, pp. 14, 28.

  40. Snyder, The Reconstruction of Nations, p. 59.

  41. Davies, God’s Playground, vol. 2, p. 75.

  42. Roman Dmowski, La question polonaise, Armand Colin, Paris 1909, pp. 180–81.

  43. Ibid, p. 291.

  44. Andreas Kossert, ‘Founding Father of Modern Poland and Nationalist Antisemite: Roman Dmowski’, in Rebecca Haynes and Martyn Rady (eds), In the Shadow of Hitler , I. B. Tauris, London 2011, p. 98.

  45. M. B. B. Biskupski, Independence Day: Myth, Symbol, and the Creation of Modern Poland, Oxford University Press 2012, p. 174.

  46. Robert Blobaum, ‘The Politics of Antisemitism in Fin-de-Siècle Warsaw’, Journal of Mo
dern History, vol. 73, no. 2, June 2001, p. 275.

  47. Ibid, p. 287.

  48. Ibid, pp. 275–80.

  49. Colin Holmes, Anti-Semitism in British Society, 1876–1939, Edward Arnold, London 1979, pp. 97–100.

  50. Colin Holmes, ‘The Tredegar Riots of 1911: Anti-Jewish Disturbances in South Wales’, Welsh History Review, vol. 11, no. 2, December 1982, pp. 214–25.

  51. Fishman, ‘The Condition of East End Jewry in 1888’, p. 16.

  52. James Winter, London’s Teeming Streets, 1830–1914, Routledge, London 1993, p. 107.

  53. András Gerő, Modern Hungarian Society in the Making: The Unfinished Experience, Central European University Press, Budapest 1995, pp. 182–3.

  54. Maite Ojeda Mata, ‘Assimilation et différence. Les Juifs et l’état-nation hongrois, 1895–1914’, in Les limites de siècles. Champs de forces conservatrices et régressives depuis les temps modernes, ed. Marita Gilli, Presses Universitaires Franc-Comtoises 2001, p. 341.

  55. Janos, The Politics of Backwardness in Hungary, 1825–1945, p. 141.

  56. McCagg, ‘Hungary’s “Feudalized” Bourgeoisie’, pp. 67–9.

  57. Janos, The Politics of Backwardness in Hungary, 1825–1945, p. 116.

  58. Gerő, Modern Hungarian Society in the Making, p. 174.

  59. Irina Livezeanu, Cultural Politics in Greater Romania, Cornell University Press 1995, p. 193.

  60. Constantin Iordachi, ‘The Unyielding Boundaries of Citizenship: The Emancipation of “Non-Citizens” in Romania, 1866–1918’, European Review of History, vol. 8, no. 2, 2001, pp. 167–8.

  61. Hitchins, Rumania, p. 164.

  62. Ibid, pp. 16 and 165–6; see also Janos, ‘Modernization and Decay in Historical Perspective’, p. 91; on the Belgian constitution as a model see Berindei, ‘The Nineteenth Century’, p. 223; on the Jews see Durandin, Histoire des Roumains, pp. 176–82.

  63. Durandin, Histoire des Roumains, pp. 180–81.

  64. Cited in Philip Gabriel Eidelberg, The Great Rumanian Peasant Revolt of 1907: Origins of a Modern Jacquerie, E. J. Brill, Leiden 1974, p. 204.

  65. Chirot, Social Change in a Peripheral Society, p. 150; Hitchins, Rumania, p. 178; Chirot and Ragin, ‘The Market, Tradition and Peasant Rebellion’, pp. 434–5; Durandin, Histoire des Roumains, p. 192.