66. Schorske, Fin-de-Siècle Vienna, p. 116 and the whole of Chapter 3.
67. David Kertzer, The Popes against the Jews: The Vatican’s Role in the Rise of Modern Anti-Semitism, Knopf, New York 2001, pp. 136–7.
68. Antoine Blanc de Saint-Bonnet, De la Restauration française. Mémoire présenté au clergé et à l’aristocratie, Hervé, Paris 1851, pp. 45–7, 234.
69. Werner Sombart, The Jews and Modern Capitalism, Transaction Books, New Brunswick and London 1997, pp. 188 and 248.
70. Édouard Drumont, La France juive, vol. 1, Éditions du Trident, La Librairie Française, Paris 1986, pp. 19, 34.
71. Michel Winock, La France et les Juifs, Seuil, Paris 2004, p. 91.
72. David Blackbourn, The Fontana History of Germany, 1780–1918, Fontana Press, London 1997, p. 308.
73. Muller, The Mind and the Market, p. 255.
74. Fritz Stern, The Politics of Cultural Despair: A Study in the Rise of the Germanic Ideology, University of California Press 1974, p. 61.
75. Roberto Finzi, Anti-Semitism: From its European Roots to the Holocaust, Interlink Books, Northampton, MA 1999, p. 20.
76. Sidney and Beatrice Webb, Industrial Democracy, Longmans, Green & Co., London 1902 (first published 1897), pp. 697–8.
77. Auguste Chirac, Les rois de la république. Histoire de Juiveries, Dentu, Paris 1888, p. 135 (new edition).
78. J. A. Hobson, Imperialism: A Study, James Pott and Co., New York 1902, p. 64.
79. Jean-Yves Mollier and Jocelyne George, La plus longue des républiques, 1870–1940, Fayard, Paris 1994, pp. 129–30, 154.
80. Pierre Birnbaum, ‘Le rôle limité des juifs dans l’industrialisation de la société française’, in Les Juifs et l’économique, miroirs et mirages, ed. Chantal Benayoun, Alain Médam, and Pierre-Jacques Rojtman, PUM, Toulouse 1992, pp. 174–5.
81. Mark R. Cohen, ‘Medieval Jewry in the World of Islam’, in The Oxford Handbook of Jewish Studies, ed. Martin Goodman, Jeremy Cohen and David Jan Sorkin, Oxford University Press 2002, pp. 198–200.
82. Bernard Lewis, The Jews of Islam, Princeton University Press 2016, p. 158.
83. Eyal Ginio, ‘El dovér el mas sànto: The Mobilization of the Ottoman Jewish Population during the Balkan Wars (1912–13)’, in Hannes Grandits, Nathalie Clayer and Robert Pichler (eds), Conflicting Loyalties in the Balkans: The Great Powers, the Ottoman Empire and Nation-Building, I. B. Tauris, London 2011, pp. 169–71ff.
84. Raymond Kévorkian, The Armenian Genocide: A Complete History, I. B. Tauris, London 2011, pp. 11, 14.
85. Ibid, p. 808.
86. Ibid, p. 810.
87. Mark Bauerlein, Negrophobia: A Race Riot in Atlanta, 1906, Encounter Books, San Francisco, CA 2001, p. 225.
88. Ibid, p. 230.
89. See report in NPR – formerly National Public Radio: http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=6106285
90. Cited in Jack Bass and Marilyn W. Thompson, Strom: The Complicated Personal and Political Life of Strom Thurmond, PublicAffairs, New York 2005, p. 117.
91. Craig Storti, Incident at Bitter Creek: The Story of the Rock Springs Chinese Massacre, Iowa State University Press 1991, esp. pp. 99–121.
92. Ibid, pp. 23–4.
93. Leland Stanford, 8th Governor, California, Inaugural Address, 10 January 1862: http://governors.library.ca.gov/addresses/08-Stanford.html
94. Alexander Saxton, The Indispensable Enemy: Labor and the Anti-Chinese Movement in California, University of California Press 1971, p. 271.
95. Ibid, p. 273.
96. Foner, ‘Why is there no Socialism in the United States?’, p. 66.
97. Samuel Gompers and Herman Gutstadt, Meat vs. Rice: American Manhood Against Asiatic Coolieism. Which Shall Survive? (reprinted in 1908 by the Asiatic Exclusion League), p. 22.
98. Henry George, ‘The Chinese in California’, New York Daily Tribune, 1 May 1869.
99. Riis, How the Other Half Lives, pp. 62–3.
100. Archibald Cary Coolidge, The United States as a World Power, Macmillan, New York 1908, p. 62.
101. Ibid, p. 66.
102. Ronald Takaki, Strangers from a Different Shore: A History of Asian Americans, Little, Brown and Co., Boston, MA 1989, p. 201.
103. John Higham, Strangers in the Land: Patterns of American Nativism, 1860–1925, Atheneum, New York 1973, p. 41.
104. Kenneth Prewitt, What Is Your Race?: The Census and Our Flawed Efforts to Classify Americans, Princeton University Press 2013, p. 67
105. Desmond King, The Liberty of Strangers: Making the American Nation , Oxford University Press 2005, pp. 26–7.
106. The story is well told in Richard Gambino, Vendetta: The True Story of the Largest Lynching in U.S. History, Guernica Editions, Toronto 1998, see esp. pp. 96, 107–8.
107. Higham, Strangers in the Land, pp. 66–7, 92.
108. Richard Hofstadter, ‘The Folklore of Populism’, in Antisemitism in the United States, ed. Leonard Dinnerstein, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York 1971. See also Louise A. Mayo, The Ambivalent Image: Nineteenth-Century America’s Perception of the Jew, Associated University Presses, London 1988.
109. Higham, Strangers in the Land, p. 93.
110. Edmund Barton, Australia’s first Prime Minister, to the House of Representatives, discussing the ‘Immigration Restriction Bill’, House of Representatives, Debates, 12 September 1901, p. 48, cited in David Dutton, One of Us? A Century of Australian Citizenship, University of New South Wales Press 2002, p. 28; on the Labour Party’s more racist line see Stuart Macintyre, The Oxford History of Australia, vol. 4: 1901–1942: The Succeeding Age, Oxford University Press 1986, p. 89.
111. François Bédarida, ‘Perspectives sur le mouvement ouvrier et l’impérialisme en France au temps de la conquête coloniale’, Le Mouvement Social, no. 86, January–March 1974, p. 38.
112. Dewerpe, Le monde du travail en France, 1800–1950, p. 100.
113. Michelle Perrot, Les ouvriers en grève, Mouton & Co, Paris 1974, vol. 1, pp. 171–5.
114. Leroy-Beaulieu, Essai sur la repartition des richesses, pp. 473–4.
115. Beckert, Empire of Cotton, p. 271.
116. Hegel, Lectures on the Philosophy of World History, vol. 1, pp. 196–7.
117. Hegel, The Philosophy of History, p. 150.
118. Immanuel Kant, ‘On the Use of Teleological Principles in Philosophy’, in Anthropology, History, and Education, ed. Günter Zöller and Robert B. Louden, Cambridge University Press 2007, p. 211.
119. Voltaire, Essai sur les moeurs et l’esprit des nations, p. 9.
120. Ernest Renan, Histoire générale et système comparé des langue sémitiques, première partie, Imprimerie Impériale, Paris 1855, p. 4.
121. John Stuart Mill, Considerations on Representative Government, Parker, Son, and Bourn, London 1861, pp. 61–2, 64. For a lucid attempt to historize Mill’s views on this theme see Georgios Varouxakis, Mill on Nationality, Routledge, London 2013, pp. 38–52, esp. p. 50.
122. Mahatma Gandhi, The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi (electronic book), vol. 1: 1884–30 November 1896, Publications Division Government of India, New Delhi 1999, p. 410: https://www.gandhiashramsevagram.org/gandhi-literature/mahatma-gandhi-collected-works-volume-1.pdf.
123. Lawrence James, Churchill and Empire, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, London 2013, p. 48.
124. John Law (Margaret Harkness), Out of Work, Swan Sonnenstein & Co., London 1888, pp. 63–4.
125. Sascha Auerbach, Race, Law and ‘The Chinese Puzzle’ in Imperial Britain, Macmillan, London 2009, p. 39.
126. Ibid, p. 52.
127. Ibid, p. 50.
128. Ibid, pp. 74–5.
129. Mill, Principles of Political Economy, pp. 351–2.
130. Barkin, The Controversy over German Industrialization, 1890–1902, pp. 28–9.
131. Cindy Hahamovitch, ‘Creating Perfect Immigrants: Guestworkers of the World in Historical Perspective’, Labor History, vol. 44, no. 1, February 2003, pp. 73–4.
133. David Feldman, ‘Was the Nineteenth Century a Golden Age for Immigrants?’, in Andreas Fahrmeir, Olivier Faron and Patrick Weil (eds), Migration Control in the North Atlantic World: The Evolution of State Practices in Europe and the United States from the French Revolution to the Inter-War Period, Berghahn Books, New York 2005, pp. 170, 175.
134. Hahamovitch, ‘Creating Perfect Immigrants’, pp. 74–5.
135. Weber, ‘The Nation State and Economic Policy’, p. 9.
136. Ibid, p. 12.
137. Christoph Klessmann, ‘Long-Distance Migration, Integration and Segregation of an Ethnic Minority in Industrial Germany: The Case of the “Ruhr Poles”’, in Klaus Bade (ed.), Population, Labour and Migration in 19th- and 20th-Century Germany, Berg, Leamington Spa 1987, p. 102.
138. André Armengaud, ‘Population in Europe, 1700–1914’, in Carlo M. Cipolla (ed.), The Fontana Economic History of Europe, vol. 3: The Industrial Revolution, Collins, London 1980, p. 63.
139. Davis, ‘From “Rookeries” to “Communities”’, p. 69.
140. Armengaud, ‘Population in Europe, 1700–1914’, p. 67.
141. Aristide R. Zolberg, ‘Global Movements, Global Walls: Responses to Migration 1885–1925’, in Wang Gungwu (ed.), Global History and Migrations, Westview Press, Boulder, CO 1997, p. 288.
142. See figures on: http://esa.un.org/unmigration/documents/The_number_of_international_migrants.pdf
13. Suffrage
1. Marcel Liebman, Les socialistes belges, 1885–1914. La révolte et l’organisation, Vie Ouvrière, Brussels 1979, p. 58, where it is claimed that twenty-four were killed; Jean-Louis Delaet mentions fourteen dead (including those injured who died later), see his ‘Les émeutes de mars 1886 au Pays de Charleroi’, in Fourmies et les premier mai, ed. Madeleine Rebérioux, Éditions Ouvrières, Paris 1994, p. 225.
2. André Pierrard and Jean-Louis Chappat, La fusillade de Fourmies, Miroirs, Nord/Pas-de-Calais 1991, pp. 127–8.
3. Manfredi Alberti, Senza lavoro La disoccupazione in Italia dall’Unità a oggi, Laterza, Rome-Bari 2016, pp. 3–4.
4. Salvatore Francesco Romano, Storia dei Fasci siciliani, Laterza, Rome-Bari 1959, p. 1.
5. Ibid, p. 106.
6. Ibid, pp. 384–95.
7. Ibid, pp. 428–9.
8. Ibid, p. 471.
9. Ambra Boldetti, ‘La repressione in Italia. Il caso del 1894’, Rivista di Storia Contemporanea, vol. 6, no. 4, 1977, p. 491.
10. Ibid, p. 499.
11. Ibid, p. 503.
12. Romano, Storia dei Fasci siciliani, pp. 461–3.
13. Susan A. Ashley, Making Liberalism Work: The Italian Experience, 1860–1914, Praeger, Westport, CT 2003, p. 152.
14. Officially there were eighty-three dead, including a soldier, see ‘La cessazi-one dello stato d’assedio’, Corriere della Sera, 6–7 September 1898, p. 3; the journalist Eugenio Torelli Viollier, an eyewitness, thinks there were many more, see Lucio Villari, ‘I fatti di Milano del 1898. La testimonianza di Eugenio Torelli Viollier’, Studi Storici, vol. 8, no. 3, July–September 1967, pp. 534–49.
15. César de Paepe, Le suffrage universel et la capacité politique de la classe ouvrière, Gand 1890, p. 10, quoted in Liebman, Les socialistes belges (1885– 1914), p. 84.
16. David Hume, ‘Of Refinement in the Arts’ (1752), David Hume, Selected Essays, Oxford University Press 2008, pp. 174–5.
17. Yan Fu (Yen Fou), Les manifestes de Yen Fou, ed. François Houang, Fayard, Paris 1977, p. 96.
18. Ibid, p. 151.
19. William Jennings Bryan, Letters to a Chinese Official, McClure, Phillips and Co, New York 1906, pp. 54–5.
20. Eduardo Posada-Carbó, ‘Electoral Juggling: A Comparative History of the Corruption of Suffrage in Latin America, 1830–1930’, Journal of Latin American Studies, vol. 32, no. 3, October 2000, p. 623.
21. Paul W. Drake, Between Tyranny and Anarchy: A History of Democracy in Latin America, 1800–2006, Stanford University Press 2009, p. 112.
22. Leslie Bethell, ‘Politics in Brazil: From Elections without Democracy to Democracy without Citizenship’, Daedalus, vol. 129, no. 2, Spring 2000, pp. 3–6.
23. Posada-Carbó, ‘Electoral Juggling’, p. 612.
24. Juan Maiguashca, ‘The Electoral Reforms of 1861 in Ecuador and the Rise of a New Political Order’, in Eduardo Posada-Carbó (ed.), Elections before Democracy: The History of Elections in Europe and Latin America, Macmillan, London 1996, pp. 87–9.
25. Hilda Sabato, ‘Citizenship, Political Participation and the Formation of the Public Sphere in Buenos Aires, 1850s–1880s’, Past & Present, no. 136, August 1992, pp. 141–3.
26. Karl Marx, Class Struggles in France, 1848–1850, International Publishers, New York 1964, p. 54.
27. Osmo Jussila, Seppo Hentilä, and Jukka Nevakivi, From Grand Duchy to a Modern State: A Political History of Finland since 1809, Hurst and Co., London 1999, pp. 88–9.
28. James Lorimer, Constitutionalism of the Future: or, Parliament the Mirror of the Nation, Adam and Charles Black, Edinburgh 1865.
29. Barkin, The Controversy over German Industrialization, 1890–1902, p. 20.
30. Montesquieu, De l’esprit des lois, vol. I, livre 2, chapitre 2, p. 103.
31. Malcolm Crook and Tom Crook, ‘L’isoloir universel? La globalisation du scrutin secret au XIXe siècle’, Revue d’histoire du XIXe siècle, no. 43, 2011, pp. 41–55.
32. Margaret Lavinia Anderson, Practicing Democracy: Elections and Political Culture in Imperial Germany, Princeton University Press 2000, pp. 213–16, 242, 273.
33. Sheri E. Berman, ‘Modernization in Historical Perspective: The Case of Imperial Germany’, World Politics, vol. 53, no. 3, April 2001, p. 449.
34. Gerő, Modern Hungarian Society in the Making, p. 145.
35. H. J. Hanham, Elections and Party Management: Politics in the Time of Disraeli and Gladstone, Harvester Press, Hassocks, Sussex 1978, p. 263.
36. Economist Intelligence Unit, Democracy Index 2012: http://pages.eiu.com/rs/eiu2/images/Democracy-Index-2012.pdf; and Democracy Index 2014: http://www.eiu.com/Handlers/WhitepaperHandler.ashx?fi=Democracy-index-2014.pdf&mode=wp&campaignid=Democracy0115; and http://www.economist.com/blogs/graphicdetail/2017/01/daily-chart-20
37. In the 2017 French parliamentary elections turnout collapsed to below 50 per cent.
38. William Blackstone, Commentaries on the Laws of England, vol. 1, New York 1827, p. 127 (1st ed., 1765–9).
39. Reidar Maliks, Kant’s Politics in Context, Oxford University Press 2014, p. 95.
40. Immanuel Kant, ‘On the Common Saying: That may be correct in theory, but it is of no use in practice’, in Immanuel Kant, Practical Philosophy, ed. Mary Gregor, Cambridge University Press 1996, p. 292.
41. Ibid, p. 295.
42. Pierre Rosanvallon, Le sacre du citoyen. Histoire du suffrage universel en France, Gallimard, Paris 2001, p. 277.
43. Benjamin Constant, ‘Principes de politique’, in Écrits politiques, Gallimard, Paris 1997, pp. 367–8.
44. Ibid, pp. 344–6.
45. Ibid, pp. 347, 351, and passim.
46. Speech to the Assemblé nationale, 27 August 1789, quoted in Maliks, Kant’s Politics in Context, pp. 83–4.
47. Abbé (Emmanuel) Sieyès, Préliminaire de la Constitution françoise. Reconnaissance et exposition raisonnée des droits de l’homme et du citoyen, Baudouin, Paris 1789, p. 16: http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k41690g/f18.item
48. Jean-Paul Marat, L’Ami du peuple, Wednesday, 30 June 1790, p. 6: http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k1046480j/f6.item
49. Rosanvallon, Le sacre du citoyen, pp. 267–8.
50. Alexis de Tocqueville, Souvenirs, Calmann Lévy, Paris 1893, pp. 15–16.
51. Cited in Rosanvallon, Le sacre du citoyen, pp.
286–7.
52. Claude Willard, Le mouvement socialiste en France (1893–1905), Les Guesdistes, Éditions sociales, Paris 1965, p. 71.
53. Cited in Ronsavallon, Le sacre du citoyen, p. 353.
54. Ibid.
55. Letters of 30 April 1871 and 6 September 1871 in Gustave Flaubert, Correspondance, vol. IV, Gallimard, Paris 1998, pp. 314, 372.
56. Ibid, 7 October 1871, p. 384.
57. His emphasis, letter of 7 October 1871, in Flaubert, Correspondance, vol. IV, p. 384.
58. Cited in Hausrath, ‘The Life of Treitschke’, pp. 308–9, 311.
59. Jacques-Pierre Gougeon, ‘Les élites dirigeantes dans l’Allemagne des années 1890’, in Les limites de siècles. Champs de forces conservatrices et régressives depuis les temps modernes, ed. Marita Gilli, vol. 1, Presses Universitaires Franc-Comtoises 2001, p. 235.
60. See The Miscellaneous Writings and Speeches of Lord Macaulay, vol. 4: http://www.gutenberg.org/files/2170/2170-h/2170-h.htm
61. George Rudé, ‘English Rural and Urban Disturbances on the Eve of the First Reform Bill, 1830–1831’, Past & Present, no. 37, 1967, pp. 87ff.
62. Ibid, p. 98.
63. Chris Cook, The Routledge Companion to Britain in the Nineteenth Century, Routledge, London 2005, p. 68; Neal Blewett, ‘The Franchise in the United Kingdom, 1885–1918’, Past & Present, no. 32, December 1965, p. 31.
64. Mill, Principles of Political Economy, p. 460.
65. John Ruskin, The Crown of Wild Olive. Munera Pulveris. Pre-Raphaelitism. Aratra Pentelici, etc., Dana Estes & Co., Boston, MA 1900, p. 195, his italics.
66. John Ruskin, Time and Tide by Weare and Tyne: Twenty-Five Letters to a Working Man of Sunderland on the Laws of Work, letter III, p. 9: http://www.gutenberg.org/files/31196/31196-h/31196-h.htm
67. Matthew Arnold, Culture and Anarchy and Other Writings, ed. Stefan Collini, Cambridge University Press 1993, p. 107.
68. William George Ward, ‘The Encyclical and Syllabus’, Dublin Review, vol. 56, January–April 1865, p. 473.
69. Bentley, Lord Salisbury’s World, p. 73.
70. Lord Salisbury (signed Lord Robert Cecil), ‘English Politics and Parties’, Bentley’s Quarterly Review, vol. 1, March 1859, pp. 28–9.
71. Smith, Disraelian Conservatism and Social Reform, p. 39.
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