72. E. David Steele, Lord Salisbury, Routledge, London 2002, p. 121.
73. Bentley, Lord , pp. 150, 152.
74. Originally in Quarterly Review, vol. 116, 1864, p. 269, cited in Smith (ed.), Lord Salisbury on Politics, p. 45.
75. Cited in Gareth Stedman Jones, ‘Rethinking Chartism’, in Gareth Stedman Jones, Languages of Class: Studies in English Working Class History, 1832–1982, Cambridge University Press 1983, p. 109.
76. Dicey, Lectures on the Relation between Law and Public Opinion in England, pp. 211–12.
77. Robert G. Gammage, History of the Chartist Movement, 1837–1854 (first published 1854), cited in Stedman Jones, ‘Rethinking Chartism’, p. 100.
78. William Gladstone, House of Commons, 11 May 1864: http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1864/may/11/second-reading, cols 313–27.
79. Letter to Palmerston, 15 May 1864, The Letters of Queen Victoria, vol. 4, ed. George E. Buckle, Cambridge University Press, 2014, pp. 189–90.
80. William Gladstone, Speech in the House of Commons, 27 April 1866: http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1866/apr/27/adjourned-debate-eighth-night, col. 121.
81. John Bright, Speeches on Parliamentary Reform, & c. (delivered during the autumn of 1866), John Heywood, Manchester 1866, p. 35.
82. F. W. S. Craig, British Electoral Facts: 1832–1987, Parliamentary Research Services, Darmouth 1989, pp. 9–10.
83. Smith, Disraelian Conservatism and Social Reform, p. 90.
84. Ibid, p. 102.
85. Ibid, pp. 96–7.
86. Dicey, Lectures on the Relation between Law and Public Opinion in England, p. 252.
87. Smith, Disraelian Conservatism and Social Reform, pp. 22–5.
88. Niall Ferguson, ‘Political Risk and the International Bond Market between the 1848 Revolution and the Outbreak of the First World War’, Economic History Review, vol. 59, no. 1, 2006, p. 94n.
89. Letter of 18 November 1868, in Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, Correspondence 1846– 1895: A Selection with Commentary and Notes, Martin Lawrence, London 1934, pp. 253–4.
90. Cited in Smith, Disraelian Conservatism and Social Reform, p. 103.
91. Webb, ‘The Moral of the Elections’, p. 287.
92. Lord Rosebery, Leader’s Speech at the National Liberal Federation conference held at Cardiff on 18 January 1895: http://www.britishpoliticalspeech.org/speech-archive.htm?speech=5
93. Carl Strikwerda, A House Divided: Catholics, Socialists, and Flemish Nationalists in Nineteenth-Century Belgium, Rowman & Littlefield, Lanham, MD, and Oxford 1997, pp. 95–6.
94. Alfred Defuisseaux, ‘Le catéchisme du peuple’, 1886: http://users.skynet.be/roger.romain/Defuisseaux.html. On the sales of the pamphlet see Liebman, Les socialistes belges, 1885–1914, p. 68.
95. Strikwerda, A House Divided, p. 109.
96. Liebman, Les socialistes belges, 1885–1914, pp. 100–108.
97. Giorgio Candeloro, Storia dell’Italia moderna, vol. 6: Lo sviluppo del capitalismo e del movimento operaio 1871–1896, Feltrinelli, Milan 1978, pp. 154–5.
98. Silvio Furlani, ‘Le riforme elettorali del 1882’, in Il parlamento italiano 1861–1988, vol. V: 1877–1887, Nuova CEI, Milan 1989, pp. 85–6.
99. Anderson, Practicing Democracy, p. 8.
100. Berman, ‘Modernization in Historical Perspective’, pp. 437–40.
101. Ibid, pp. 443–5.
102. Gilbert Rozman, ‘Social Change’, in Marius B. Jansen (ed.), The Cambridge History of Japan, vol. 5: The Nineteenth Century, Cambridge University Press 1989, p. 525.
103. Johannes Hirschmeier and Tsunehiko Yui, The Development of Japanese Business, 1600–1973, Harvard University Press 1975, pp. 73–4.
104. Neary, The State and Politics in Japan, p. 17.
105. Jansen, The Making of Modern Japan, p. 394.
106. Ibid, p. 415.
107. Norman, Japan’s Emergence as a Modern State, p. 189.
108. Lehmann, The Roots of Modern Japan, pp. 247, 249, 267.
109. Yukichi Fukuzawa, The Autobiography of Yukichi Fukuzawa, trans. Eiichi Kiyooka, Columbia University Press 2007, p. 449 (in appendix).
110. Stanley L. Engerman and Kenneth L. Sokoloff, ‘The Evolution of Suffrage Institutions in the New World’, Journal of Economic History, vol. 65, no. 4, December 2005, pp. 906–9.
111. J. Morgan Kousser, The Shaping of Southern Politics: Suffrage Restriction and the Establishment of the One-Party South, 1880–1910, Yale University Press 1974, p. 12.
112. Foner, Reconstruction, pp. 235, 191.
113. Gould, Reform and Regulation, p. 7.
114. Kousser, The Shaping of Southern Politics, p. 39.
115. Gould, Reform and Regulation, p. 4.
14. Private Affluence, Public Welfare
1. R. H. Tawney, The Acquisitive Society, 1920: http://www.gutenberg.org/files/33741/33741-h/33741-h.htm, p. 38.
2. John Maynard Keynes, The Economic Consequences of the Peace, 1920: http://www.gutenberg.org/files/15776/15776-h/15776-h.htm, Chapter 2.
3. Patten, The New Basis of Civilization, pp. 19–20.
4. Ibid, p. 6; see also Daniel M. Fox, The Discovery of Abundance: Simon N. Patten and the Transformation of Social Theory, Cornell University Press 1967, p. 11.
5. US Dept. of Labor Statistics, Office of Publication and Special Studies: http://www.bls.gov/opub/uscs/1901.pdf
6. Horowitz, The Morality of Spending, p. 30.
7. Charles McGovern, ‘Consumption and Citizenship in the United States, 1900–1940’, in Getting and Spending, ed. Susan Strasser, Charles McGovern, and Matthias Judt, Cambridge University Press 1998, p. 47.
8. Rosalind H. Williams, Dream Worlds: Mass Consumption in Late Nineteenth-Century France, University of California Press 1982, esp. pp. 303–10.
9. Bonneff, La vie tragique des travailleurs, p. 233.
10. Glickman, A Living Wage, pp. 5, 26–7.
11. Thorstein Veblen, The Theory of the Leisure Class, Random House, New York 2001, p. 55.
12. Hume, ‘Of Refinement in the Arts’, p. 170.
13. Diner, Hungering for America, p. 45.
14. Henry Ford, My Life and Work, Heinemann, London 1922, p. 73.
15. McGovern, ‘Consumption and Citizenship in the United States, 1900–1940’, pp. 44–5.
16. Brian Greenberg and Linda S. Watts, Social History of the United States, ABC-CLIO, Santa Barbara, CA 2009, p. 30.
17. Terry P. Wilson, The Cart that Changed the World: The Career of Sylvan N. Goldman, University of Oklahoma Press 1978, p. 85.
18. Klein, The Genesis of Industrial America, 1870–1920, p. 30.
19. Lisa Jacobson, Raising Consumers: Children and the American Mass Market in the Early Twentieth Century, Columbia University Press 2004, pp. 23–6.
20. William R. Leach, Land of Desire: Merchants, Power, and the Rise of a New American Culture, Knopf Doubleday, New York 2011, p. 4.
21. Carlson, ‘Technology and America as a Consumer Society, 1870–1900’, pp. 29–30.
22. Edward Bellamy, Looking Backward: From 2000 to 1887: http://www.gutenberg.org/files/624/624-h/624-h.htm. The term ‘credit card’ appears in Chapter 9.
23. David M. Potter, People of Plenty: Economic Abundance and the American Character, University of Chicago Press 1973, first published 1954, p. 83, citing UN statistics in Karl W. Deutsch, Nationalism and Social Communication, MIT and Wiley, New York 1953, p. 40.
24. Ibid, pp. 84, 90, 95, 101, 175, 177, 195ff.
25. John Larson, ‘The Market Revolution’, in Lacy K. Ford, A Companion to the Civil War and Reconstruction, Blackwell, Oxford 2005, p. 41.
26. Lévy-Leboyer and Bourguignon, L’économie française au XIXe siècle, p. 38.
27. Charles B. Spahr, An Essay on the Present Distribution of Wealth in the United States, Thomas Y. Crowell and Co., 2nd ed., Boston, MA 1896, pp. 128–9: http://archive.org/details/anessayonpresen01spahgoog
28. Piketty, Capital in the Twenty-First Century, pp. 22–4
, figure I.1.
29. Werner Sombart, Why is there no Socialism in the United States? Macmillan, New York and London 1976, p. 106.
30. Friedrich Engels, ‘Letter to Friedrich Sorge’, 24 October 1891, in Marx and Engels Correspondence: https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1891/letters/91_10_24a.htm
31. Cited in Foner, ‘Why is there no Socialism in the United States?’, p. 58.
32. For an overall assessment of the strength of these arguments see Seymour Martin Lipset and Gary Marks, It Didn’t Happen Here: Why Socialism Failed in the United States, Norton and Co., New York 2000.
33. Robin Archer, Why Is There No Labor Party in the United States, Princeton University Press 2007, pp. 234– 6.
34. Jerome Karabel, ‘The Reasons Why’, The New York Times, 8 February 1979; see also Foner, ‘Why is there no Socialism in the United States?’ pp. 60, 71.
35. Ira Kipnis, The American Socialist Movement, 1897–1912, Haymarket Books, Chicago, IL 2005, pp. 247–8, first published 1952.
36. Eugene V. Debs, Campaign Speech, Lyceum Theatre, Fergus Falls, Minnesota, 27 August 1912: https://www.marxists.org/archive/debs/works/1912/1912-capsoc.htm
37. Robert C. McMath, Jr, American Populism: A Social History, 1877– 1898, Hill and Wang, New York 1993, p. 83.
38. Cohen, The Reconstruction of American Liberalism, 1865–1914, p. 177.
39. Theodore Roosevelt, ‘Address at the Coliseum’, 14 September 1912, San Francisco, California, in David M. Kennedy and Thomas A. Bailey (eds), The American Spirit: United States History as Seen by Contemporaries, Cengage Learning, Boston, MA 2009, vol. 2, p. 225.
40. Leuchtenburg, The American President, p. 61.
41. Sklar, The Corporate Reconstruction of American Capitalism, 1890–1916, pp. 401–4.
42. Theodore Roosevelt, ‘First Annual Message’ to Congress, 3 December 1901: http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=29542; see also Kolko, The Triumph of Conservatism, p. 66; Leuchtenburg, The American President, p. 30.
43. Gould, Reform and Regulation, p. 20.
44. Colin Jones, ‘Perspectives on Poor Relief, Health Care and the Counter-Reformation in France’, in Health Care and Poor Relief in Counter-Reformation Europe, ed. Ole Peter Grell and Andrew Cunningham, with Jon Arrizabalaga, Routledge, London 1999, p. 216.
45. Mokyr, The Enlightened Economy, p. 440.
46. Thomas Malthus, An Essay on the Principle of Population (1798), Chapter 5, paragraph 3: http://www.gutenberg.org/files/4239/4239-h/4239-h.htm
47. Henri Hatzfeld, Du paupérisme à la sécurité sociale (1850–1940), Presses Universitaires de Nancy 2004, pp. 34, 67–9.
48. Thomas Malthus, ‘An Inves-tigation of the Cause of the Present High Price of Provisions’ (1800), cited and discussed in Morgan Kelly and Cormac O’Gráda, ‘Living Standards and Mortality since the Middle Ages’, Economic History Review, vol. 67, no. 2, 2014, p. 361.
49. Ibid, pp. 358–81.
50. David Ricardo, On the Principles of Political Economy and Taxation, John Murray, London 1821, p. 102 (Chapter 5: ‘On Wages’).
51. David Englander, Poverty and Poor Law Reform in Nineteenth-Century Britain, 1834–1914: From Chadwick to Booth, Routledge, London 2013, p. 1.
52. Mokyr, The Enlightened Economy, p. 441.
53. Lindert, Growing Public, p. 8.
54. Castel, Les métamorphoses de la question sociale, p. 232.
55. Prosper Poullet, Les institutions françaises de 1795 à 1814. Essai sur les origines des institutions belges contemporaines, Plon, Paris 1907, p. 446.
56. Gareth Stedman Jones, An End to Poverty? A Historical Debate, Profile Books, London 2004, pp. 24–5.
57. Ibid, p. 20.
58. Poullet, Les institutions françaises de 1795 à 1814, p. 447; see also Lis and Soly, Poverty and Capitalism in Pre-Industrial Europe, pp. 209–10.
59. Jean-Baptiste Say, Cours complet d’économie politique pratique, vol. 5, Rapilly, Paris 1829, p. 347 (XXXII, ‘Des sécours publics’).
60. Alexis de Tocqueville, Mémoire sur le paupérisme, Ministère de l’instruction publique et des beaux-arts, Imprimerie nationale, Paris 1835, pp. 12, 16.
61. Paul Leroy-Beaulieu, L’administration locale en France et en Angleterre, Guillaumin, Paris 1872, p. 237.
62. Ibid, p. 234.
63. Ibid, p. 251.
64. Leroy-Beaulieu, Essai sur la repartition des richesses, p. 437.
65. Ibid, p. 409.
66. Hatzfeld, Du paupérisme à la sécurité sociale, p. 34.
67. John H. Weiss, ‘Origins of the French Welfare State: Poor Relief in the Third Republic, 1871–1914’, French Historical Studies, vol. 13, no. 1, Spring 1983, p. 55.
68. Madeleine Rebérioux, La République radicale? 1898–1914, Éditions du Seuil, Paris 1975.
69. Albert Thibaudet, Les idées politiques de la France, Librairie Stock, Paris 1932, p. 184. Thibaudet, a literary critic, attributed the bon mot to ‘a socialist’.
70. Donald G. Wileman, ‘Not the Radical Republic: Liberal Ideology and Central Blandishment in France, 1901–1914’, Historical Journal, vol. 37, no. 3, September 1994, pp. 593– 614.
71. J. P. T. Bury, Gambetta’s Final Years: ‘The Era of Difficulties’, 1877–1882, Longman, London 1982, pp. 355–6; Pierre Sorlin, Waldeck-Rousseau, Armand Colin, Paris 1966, p. 243.
72. Léon Gambetta, ‘La politique et les affaires’, Revue politique, 6 June 1868, cited in Jeanne Gaillard, ‘Les associations de production et la pensée politique en France (1852–1870)’, Le Mouvement Social, no. 52, July–September 1966, p. 77.
73. Antonmattei, Léon Gambetta, p. 168.
74. Ibid, pp. 175–6.
75. Jean-Michel Gaillard, Jules Ferry, Fayard, Paris 1989, pp. 160, 407–9.
76. Peter Baldwin, The Politics of Social Solidarity: Class Bases of the European Welfare State, 1875–1975, Cambridge University Press 1990, p. 102.
77. Timothy B. Smith, ‘The Ideology of Charity, the Image of the English Poor Law, and Debates over the Right to Assistance in France, 1830–1905’, Historical Journal, vol. 40, no. 4, December 1997, p. 999.
78. Sorlin, Waldeck-Rousseau, p. 270.
79. Leduc, Histoire de la France, p. 59.
80. Hatzfeld, Du paupérisme à la sécurité sociale, p. 34.
81. Didier Renard, ‘Assistance publique et bienfaisance privée, 1885–1914’, Politiques et management public, vol. 5, no. 2, 1987, p. 113.
82. Hatzfeld, Du paupérisme à la sécurité sociale, p. 72.
83. Ibid, p. 75.
84. Ibid, p. 74.
85. Robert Gildea, Children of the Revolution: The French, 1799–1914, Allen Lane, London 2008, p. 270.
86. Léon Bourgeois, Solidarité, Armand Colin, Paris 1896, pp. 12, 22.
87. Timothy B. Smith, Creating the Welfare State in France, 1880–1940, McGill-Queen’s University Press 2003, pp. 13–14.
88. Paul Leroy-Beaulieu, ‘Le prochain gouffre: le projet de loi sur les retraites’, L’Économiste français, 11 May 1901.
89. William Stanley Jevons, The State in Relation to Labour, Macmillan, London 1882, p. 66; J. H. Stewart Reid, The Origins of the British Labour Party, University of Minnesota Press 1955, p. 14.
90. Henry Sidgwick, The Elements of Politics, Macmillan, London 1897, first published 1891, p. 40.
91. Sanford Elwitt, The Third Republic Defended: Bourgeois Reforms in France, 1880–1914, Louisiana State University Press 1986, p. 145, and Michel Bouillé, ‘Les congrès d’hygiène des travailleurs au début du siècle 1904–1911’, Le Mouvement Social, no. 161, October–December 1992, pp. 43–65.
92. Georges Tapinos, ‘Une seconde transition démographique? La population et l’emploi’, in Maurice Lévy-Leboyer and Jean-Claude Casanova (eds), Entre l’état et le marché. L’économie française des années 1880 à nos jours, Gallimard, Paris 1991, p. 96.
93. Perrot, Les ouvriers en grève, p. 166.
94. Philip Nord, ‘The Welfare State in France, 1870–1914’, French
Historical Studies, vol. 18, no. 3, Spring 1994, pp. 827– 8.
95. Rachel G. Fuchs, ‘Morality and Poverty: Public Welfare for Mothers in Paris, 1870–1900’, French History, vol. 2, no. 3, 1988, p. 289.
96. See Ida Bloom, ‘Voluntary Motherhood 1900–1930: Theories and Politics of a Norwegian Feminist in an International Perspective’, and also Anne-Lise Seip and Hilde Ibsen, ‘Family Welfare, which Policy? Norway’s Road to Child Allow-ances’, both in Gisela Bock and Pat Thane (eds), Maternity and Gender Policies: Women and the Rise of the European Welfare States, 1880s–1950s, Routledge, London and New York 1991, pp. 21–39, 40–59.
97. Ann-Sofie Ohlander, ‘The Invisible Child? The Struggle for a Social Democratic Family Policy in Sweden, 1900–1960s’, in Bock and Thane (eds), Maternity and Gender Policies, pp. 60–72.
98. Bock and Thane (eds), ‘Introduction’ to Maternity and Gender Policies, p. 16.
99. Adrian Shubert, A Social History of Modern Spain, Unwin Hyman, London 1990, p. 50.
100. Peter Flora and Arnold J. Heidenheimer (eds), The Development of Welfare States in Europe and America, Transaction Books, Piscataway, NJ 1981, pp. 48–50.
101. Trencsényi et al., A History of Modern Political Thought in East Central Europe, p. 401.
102. Ha-Joon Chang, Kicking Away the Ladder, p. 104.
103. Edmund Morris, Theodore Rex, Random House, New York 2001, p. 507.
104. Baldwin, The Politics of Social Solidarity, pp. 5–8.
105. Ibid, pp. 62–3.
106. Ibid, p. 66.
107. Lars-Fredrik Andersson and Liselotte Eriksson, ‘The Compulsory Public Pension and the Demand for Life Insurance: The Case of Sweden, 1884– 1914’, Economic History Review, vol. 68, no. 1, February 2015, pp. 245–8.
108. William Harbutt Dawson, Bismarck and State Socialism: An Exposition of the Social and Economic Legislation of Germany since 1870, Swan Sonnenschein & Co., London 1890, pp. ix, 3–5.
109. Ibid, p. 28.
110. E. P. Hennock, The Origin of the Welfare State in England and Germany, 1850– 1914: Social Policies Compared, Cambridge University Press 2007, p. 90.
111. E. P. Hennock, ‘Social Policy in the Bismarck Era: A Progress Report’, German History, vol. 21, no. 2, 2003, p. 234. On firing workers before pension see Barrington Moore, Jr., Injustice: The Social Bases of Obedience and Revolt, Macmillan, London and Basingstoke 1978, p. 268.
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