112. Lothar Gall, Bismarck: The White Revolutionary, vol. 2: 1871–1898, Unwin Hyman, London 1990, pp. 165–6.
113. Hennock, The Origin of the Welfare State in England and Germany, pp. 87, 99.
114. Ibid, p. 89.
115. Ibid, p. 93.
116. David Khoudour-Castéras, ‘Welfare State and Labor Mobility: The Impact of Bismarck’s Social Legislation on German Emigration before World War I’, Journal of Economic History, vol. 68, no. 1, March 2008, pp. 211–43.
117. Gall, Bismarck: The White Revolutionary, vol. 1: 1815–1871, p. 29.
118. Gordon A. Craig, Germany 1866–1945, Oxford University Press 1981, p. 253.
119. Shubert, A Social History of Modern Spain, p. 50.
120. Barkin, The Controversy over German Industrialization, 1890–1902, p. 190.
121. Daumard, ‘Puissance et inquiétudes de la société bourgeoise’, p. 500.
122. Collini, Liberalism and Sociology, p. 33.
123. Peter Gray, ‘The Peculiarities of Irish Land Tenure, 1800–1914: From Agent of Impoverishment to Agent of Pacification’, in Donald Winch and Patrick O’Brien (eds), The Political Economy of British Historical Experience, 1688–1914, Oxford University Press 2002, p. 159.
124. Wohl, The Eternal Slum, p. 237.
125. Lord Salisbury, ‘Labourers’ and Artisans’ Dwellings’, National Review, no. 9, November 1883, pp. 301, 304.
126. Ibid, p. 310.
127. Wohl, The Eternal Slum, p. 232.
128. Roberts, Salisbury, pp. 284–6.
129. Gareth Stedman Jones, Outcast London: A Study in the Relationship between Classes in Victorian Society, Clarendon Press, Oxford 1971, p. 224.
130. Michael Bentley, ‘“Boundaries” in Theoretical Language about the British State’, in Simon J. D. Green and Richard C. Whiting (eds), The Boundaries of the State in Modern Britain, Cambridge University Press 1996, p. 46.
131. Stedman Jones, Outcast London, p. 287.
132. Ibid, p. 292.
133. Mouret, ‘La légende des 150,000 décés tuberculeux par an’, pp. 64–9.
134. Dicey, Lectures on the Relation between Law and Public Opinion in England, p. 277.
135. Stedman Jones, Outcast London, p. 307.
136. José Harris, ‘The Transition to High Politics in English Social Policy, 1880–1914’, in Michael Bentley and John Stevenson (eds), High and Low Politics in Modern Britain, Clarendon Press, Oxford 1983.
137. E. H. H. Green, The Crisis of Conservatism: The Politics, Economics and Ideology of the British Conservative Party, 1880–1914, Routledge, London 1995, p. 254.
138. Ibid, pp. 4–6, 11.
139. A. B. Atkinson, Incomes and the Welfare State: Essays on , Cambridge University Press 1995, p. 134.
140. Harris, ‘Political Thought and the Welfare State 1870–1940’, p. 116.
141. Gramsci, Il Risorgimento, p. 102.
142. Francesco Crispi, Letter no. 427, 1891, in Carteggi politici inediti di Francesco Crispi (1860–1900), ed. Tommaso Palamenghi-Crispi, L’Universelle imprimerie polyglotte, Rome 1912: https://archive.org/stream/carteggipolitici00cris/carteggipolitici00cris_djvu.txt
143. Christopher Duggan, Francesco Crispi, 1818–1901: From Nation to Nationalism, Oxford University Press 2002, p. 345.
144. Ibid, p. 576.
145. Ibid, p. 585.
15. Managing Capital and Labour
1. Edmund S. K. Fung, ‘State Building, Capitalist Development, and Social Jus-tice: Social Democracy in China’s Modern Transformation, 1921–1949’, Modern China, vol. 31, no. 3, July 2005, p. 320.
2. Frederick Charles Barghoorn, ‘The Russian Radicals of the 1860’s and the Problem of the Industrial Proletariat’, Slavonic and East European Review, vol. 2, no. 1, March 1943, pp. 57–60.
3. Smith, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, p. 60.
4. Dicey, Lectures on the Relation between Law and Public Opinion in England, p. 266.
5. E. Bonjour, H. S. Offler, and G. R. Potter, A Short History of Switzerland, Clarendon Press, Oxford 1952, p. 307.
6. Lee Shai Weissbach, ‘Child Labor Legislation in Nineteenth-Century France’, Journal of Economic History, vol. 37, no. 1, March 1977, p. 269.
7. Ibid, p. 270; see also for non-implementation, Lee Shai Weissbach, Child Labor Reform in Nineteenth-Century France: Assuring the Future Harvest, Louisiana State University Press, 1989, pp. 213ff.
8. Daumard, ‘Puissance et inquiétudes de la société bourgeoise’, p. 471.
9. The traditional estimate of between 20,000 and 30,000 deaths seems exaggerated. A more accurate estimate is likely to be between 5,700 and 7,400; see Robert Tombs, ‘How Bloody was La Semaine Sanglante of 1871? A Revision’, Historical Journal, vol. 55, no. 3, 2012, pp. 679–97, esp. figures on pp. 693–5.
10. B. S. Chlepner, Cent ans d’histoire sociale en Belgique, Université Libre de Bruxelles 1958, p. 212; see also Puissant, ‘1886, la contre-réforme sociale?’, p. 69.
11. Guy Desolre, ‘Un siècle de premiers mai et de réduction du temps de travail’, in Van der Vorst (ed.), Cent ans de droit social belge, p. 109.
12. Ibid, p. 111.
13. Census figures in Chlepner, Cent ans d’histoire sociale en Belgique, p. 111.
14. Ibid, pp. 114, 119, 125, 154, 213.
15. Marx, Capital, vol. 1, pp. 203, 299n, and 460– 62.
16. Cross, A Quest for Time, pp. 56, 25.
17. Madhavan K. Palat, ‘Casting Workers as an Estate in Late Imperial Russia’, Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History, vol. 8, no. 2, Spring 2007, p. 317.
18. Boris B. Gorshkov, Russia’s Factory Children: State, Society and the Law, 1800–1917, University of Pittsburgh Press 2009, pp. 128–9.
19. Bunge, ‘The Years 1881– 1894 in Russia’, p. 61.
20. Ibid, pp. 61–71.
21. Frederick C. Giffin, ‘The “First Russian Labor Code”: The Law of June 3, 1886’, Russian History/Histoire Russe, vol. 2, no. 2, 1975, pp. 97–8.
22. Witte, Memoirs, pp. 57–8.
23. Nassau W. Senior, Letters on the Factory Act, B. Fellowes, London 1837, p. 5; see also A. J. McIvor, ‘Employers, the Government, and Industrial Fatigue in Britain, 1890–1918’, Journal of Industrial Medicine, vol. 44, no. 11, November 1987, p. 725.
24. William Mather, ‘Labour and the Hours of Labour’, Contemporary Review, vol. 62, November 1892, p. 609; for his positive views of trade unions see pp. 616, 619.
25. Marx, Capital, vol. 1, p. 303.
26. Quoted in Chris Wrigley, ‘May Days and After’, History Today, vol. 40, no. 6, June 1990: http://www.historytoday.com/chris-wrigley/may-days-and-after#sthash.qwns4XkK.dpuf
27. Cross, A Quest for Time, p. 52.
28. Sidney Webb, ‘A Plea for an Eight Hours Bill’, Fabian Tract no. 16, 1890, p. 1.
29. Green, The Crisis of Conservatism, p. 257.
30. Ibid, p. 260.
31. Ibid, p. 243.
32. Yves Guyot, La famille Pichot. Scènes de l’enfer social, Jules Rouff, Paris 1882; the description of the manager, M. de Torgnac, is on p. 16.
33. On novels about tramps see Christine Photinos, ‘The Tramp in American Literature, 1873–1939’: http://ejournals.library.vanderbilt.edu/index.php/ameriquests/article/viewFile/62/60 accessed 16 May 2017; see also Kenneth L. Kusmer, Down and Out, on the Road: The Homeless in American History, Oxford University Press 2003, p. 44.
34. Jeffrey L. Sammons, Wilhelm Raabe: The Fiction of the Alternative Community, Princeton University Press 1987, pp. 270–71.
35. Daumard, ‘Puissance et inquiétudes de la société bourgeoise’, p. 501.
36. Guy Chaumel, Histoire des cheminots et de leurs syndicats, Rivière, Paris 1948, pp. 20–21.
37. Ibid, pp. 38–9.
38. Marx, Capital, vol. 1, pp. 253– 4n.
39. François Caron, ‘Essai d’analyse historique d’une psychologie du travail. Les mécaniciens et chauffeurs de locomotives du réseau du No
rd de 1850 à 1910’, Le Mouvement Social, no. 50, January–March 1965, pp. 10–11.
40. Barkin, The Controversy over German Industrialization, 1890–1902, pp. 140–41.
41. Michael Huberman, ‘Working Hours of the World Unite? New International Evidence of Worktime, 1870–1913’, Journal of Economic History, vol. 64, no. 4, December 2004, see table p. 976.
42. Ibid, pp. 982, 977.
43. Ibid, p. 966.
44. Smith, Disraelian Conservatism and Social Reform, p. 202.
45. Ibid, p. 217; see The Letters of Disraeli to Lady Chesterfield and Lady Bradford, vol. 1, Appleton and Co., New York 1929, pp. 337–8: https://ia800302.us.archive.org/14/items/lettersofdisrael009336mbp/lettersofdisrael009336mbp.pdf
46. Dicey, Lectures on the Relation between Law and Public Opinion in England, p. 238; see also Hennock, The Origin of the Welfare State in England and Germany, pp. 70ff.
47. A much fuller list of Victorian legislation can be found at Marjie Bloy, ‘Victorian Legislation: A Timeline’: http://www.victorianweb.org/history/legistl.html
48. Quoted in Dicey, Lectures on the Relation between Law and Public Opinion in England, p. 290.
49. Ibid, pp. 242, 249.
50. Hirata and Sugita, ‘Politique paternaliste et division sexuelle du travail’, p. 76.
51. Robert Evans, Jr., ‘Evolution of the Japanese System of Employer-Employee Relations, 1868–1945’, Business History Review, vol. 44, no. 1, 1970, p. 119; Neary, The State and Politics in Japan, p. 22.
52. Colin Crouch, Industrial Relations and European State Traditions, Clarendon Press, Oxford 1993, pp. 68–9, 96–7.
53. Sorlin, Waldeck-Rousseau, p. 236.
54. Ibid, pp. 275–7.
55. Ibid, pp. 241, 125.
56. Ibid, pp. 295–6.
57. Ibid, p. 357.
58. Pierre Lévêque, Histoire des forces politiques en France, 1880–1940, vol. 2, Armand Colin, Paris 1994, p. 24.
59. Dewerpe, Le monde du travail en France 1800–1950, pp. 123, 129; British figures in H. A. Clegg, Alan Fox, and A. F. Thompson, A History of British Trade Unions since 1889, vol. 1: 1889–1910, Clarendon Press, Oxford 1964, p. 1; on the trebling of trade unionists see Sorlin, Waldeck-Rousseau, p. 356.
60. Edward Shorter and Charles Tilly, Strikes in France, 1830–1968, Cambridge University Press 1974, p. 112.
61. Perrot, Les ouvriers en grève, p. 51; Shorter and Tilly, Strikes in France, 1830–1968, p. 69.
62. Daumard, ‘Puissance et inquiétudes de la société bourgeoise’, p. 523.
63. Marjorie Milbank Farrar, Principled Pragmatist: The Political Career of Alexandre Millerand, Berg, New York and Oxford 1991, p. 45.
64. Ibid, pp. 61–73.
65. Émile Cheysson, La crise du revenu et la loi du travail, Comité de défense et de progrès social, Paris 1898, pp.17–18.
66. Huret, Enquête sur la question sociale en Europe, pp. 39ff.
67. Ibid, p. 54; on the number employed in the steelworks see René Parize, ‘Les militants ouvriers au Creusot pendant les grèves de 1899–1900’, Le Mouvement Social, no. 99, April–June 1977, p. 97.
68. Ibid, pp. 97–8; Claude Beaud, ‘Les Schneider au Creusot: un modèle paternaliste en réponse aux impératifs du libéralisme et à la montée du mouvement socialiste’, in Aerts, Beaud, and Stengers (eds), Liberalism and Paternalism in the 19th Century, p. 15.
69. Brandes, American Welfare Capitalism, 1880–1940, pp. 4–5.
70. Ibid, p. 4.
71. François Weil, ‘Les paternalismes aux États-Unis (1800–1930)’, in Aerts, Beaud, and Stengers (eds), Liberalism and Paternalism in the 19th Century, p. 131.
72. See the entry ‘Alphonse de Rothschild’ in the Jewish Encyclopedia of 1906: http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/12909-rothschild#anchor9
73. Huret, Enquête sur la question sociale en Europe, pp. 64–9.
74. Günther Schulz, ‘Industrial Patriarchalism in Germany’, in Aerts, Beaud, and Stengers (eds), Liberalism and Paternalism in the 19th Century, pp. 62–6.
75. Ralf Dahrendorf, Society and Democracy in Germany, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, London 1967, pp. 49–50.
76. Charles-Alfred de Janzé, Les serfs de la voie ferrée. La vérité et les compagnies, Tolmer, Paris 1881, p. 15.
77. Koji Taira, ‘Factory Legislation and Management Modernization during Japan’s Industrialization, 1886–1916’, Business History Review, vol. 44, no. 1, 1970, p. 89.
78. Lévy, ‘La naissance du movement ouvrier moderne au Japon’, pp. 122–3; see also Tsuzuki, The Pursuit of Power in Modern Japan, 1825–1995, p. 153.
79. Lehmann, The Roots of Modern Japan, p. 212.
80. Taira, ‘Factory Legislation and Management Modernization during Japan’s Industrialization, 1886–1916’, pp. 87, 95, 109.
81. Alberti, Senza lavoro, p. 45; on the Cassa di maternità see Valerio Strinati, ‘Origini e istituzione della Cassa di maternità (1875–1910)’, Studi Storici, vol. 45, no. 2, April–June 2004, pp. 509–53.
82. Giovanni Giolitti, Discorsi extraparlamentari, Einaudi, Turin 1952, p. 173.
83. Webster, Industrial Imperialism in Italy 1908–1915, p. 344n.
84. Giovanni Giolitti, Speech to the Chamber of Deputies, 4 February 1901, in Giovanni Giolitti, Discorsi parlamentari, vol. 2, Camera dei Deputati, Rome 1953, pp. 626–9.
85. Ibid, pp. 626ff.
86. Cited in Antonino Répaci, La marcia su Roma, Rizzoli, Milan 1972, p. 104.
87. Procacci, La lotta di classe in Italia agli inizi del secolo XX, pp. 83–5.
88. Giolitti, Discorsi extraparlamentari, pp. 105–6.
89. Giovanni Giolitti, Speech to the Camera dei Deputati, 4 February 1901, in Giolitti, Discorsi parlamentari, pp. 630, 633; see also Giolitti’s speech of 29 October 1899, p. 1,186.
90. Giovanni Giolitti, Speech to the Camera dei Deputati, 21 June 1901, in Atti parlamentari, XX legislatura, p. 5,504.
91. For an overview of Giolitti’s achievements, see Frank J. Coppa, ‘Economic and Ethical Liberalism in Conflict: The Extraordinary Liberalism of Giovanni Giolitti’, Journal of Modern History, vol. 42, no. 2, June 1970, pp. 191–215.
92. Palmiro Togliatti, ‘Discorso su Giolitti’, in Palmiro Togliatti, Momenti della storia d’Italia, Riuniti, Rome 1974, p. 94.
93. Ernesto Ragionieri, Storia d’Italia, vol. 4: Dall’Unità a oggi, Einaudi, Turin 1976, p. 1,870.
94. Alberti, Senza lavoro, p. 33.
95. Baglioni, L’ideologia della borghesia industriale, p. 163.
96. Ibid, p. 168; Amedeo Osti Guerrazzi, Grande industria e legislazione sociale in età giolittiana, Paravia, Turin 2000, p. 10.
97. Ragionieri, Storia d’Italia, vol. 4: Dall’Unità a oggi, pp. 1,866–97; Emilio Gentile, L’Italia giolittiana, Il Mulino, Bologna 1990, pp. 229–36; Amedeo Osti Guerrazzi, Grande industria e legislazione sociale in età giolittiana, Paravia, Turin 2000, p. 9.
98. See Louis D. Brandeis, Other People’s Money and How the Bankers Use It, Frederick A. Stokes Co., New York 1914: https://archive.org/stream/otherpeoplesmone00bran/otherpeoplesmone00bran_djvu.txt
99. Mark J. Roe, Strong Managers, Weak Owners: The Political Roots of American Corporate Finance, Princeton University Press, 1994, p. 3. The separation between owners and managers was famously identified by Adolf Berle and Gardiner Means in their celebrated The Modern Corporation and Private Property (1932).
100. Marjorie Kelly, ‘The Incredibly Unproductive Shareholder’, Harvard Business Review, vol. 80, no. 1, January 2002, pp. 18–19.
101. Gérard Duménil and Dominique Lévy, La grande bifurcation. En finir avec le néolibéralisme, La Découverte, Paris 2014, p. 29.
16. God and Capitalism
1. Charles Dickens, Bleak House, Chapter 15.
2. Martin Luther, ‘Ninety-Five Theses’, thesis no. 27, see: http://www.luther.de/en/95thesen.html
3. Brook, The Confusions of Pleasure, pp. 72–3; Ho-fung Hung, Protest with Chinese Characteristics, Columbia
University Press 2011, p. 24.
4. Figes, A People’s Tragedy, p. 63.
5. Richard Pipes, Russia under the Old Regime, Penguin, London 1984, p. 243 and the whole of Chapter 9.
6. Figes, A People’s Tragedy, pp. 67, 65.
7. Vera Shevzov, Russian Orthodoxy on the Eve of Revolution, Oxford University Press 2004, p. 12.
8. Figes, A People’s Tragedy, p. 69.
9. Marx, Capital, vol. 1, fn 92, Chapter 10, ‘The Working Day’, p. 206.
10. Max Weber, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, ed. and trans. Stephen Kalberg, Blackwell, Oxford 2002, p. 66.
11. R. H. Tawney, Religion and the Rise of Capitalism, Transaction Publishers, London 1998, pp. 231–2.
12. Milton Singer, ‘Religion and Social Change in India: The Max Weber Thesis, Phase Three’, Economic Development and Cultural Change, vol. 14, no. 4, July 1966, p. 499.
13. John M. Najemy, A History of Florence, 1200–1575, Blackwell, Oxford 2006, p. 100.
14. Davide Cantoni, ‘The Economic Effects of the Protestant Reformation: Testing the Weber Hypothesis in the German Lands’, Journal of the European Economic Association, vol. 13, no. 4, August 2015, pp. 561–98.
15. Sascha O. Becker and Ludger Woessmann, ‘Was Weber Wrong? A Human Capital Theory of Protestant Economic History’, Quarterly Journal of Economics, vol. 124, no. 2, May 2009, pp. 531– 96.
16. Max Weber, ‘Prefatory Remarks’ to Collected Essays in the Sociology of Religion (1920), in Weber, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, p. 153.
17. Blackbourn, The Fontana History of Germany, 1780–1918, p. 294.
18. Margaret Lavinia Anderson, ‘The Limits of Secularization: On the Problem of the Catholic Revival in Nineteenth-Century Germany’, Historical Journal, vol. 38, no. 3, September 1995, pp. 648, 652, 653, citing Richard J. Jensen, The Winning of the Midwest: Social and Political Conflict, 1888–96, Theodore K. Hoppen, Elections, Politics and Society in Ireland, 1832–1885, Oxford University Press 1984, p. 171, and Smith, German Nationalism and Religious Conflict, p. 94.
19. Blackbourn, The Fontana History of Germany, 1780–1918, p. 285.
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