75. Yukichi Fukuzawa, The Autobiography of Yukichi Fukuzawa, p. 415.
76. MoriŌgai, ‘Yellow Peril’, in Richard John Bowring, MoriŌgai and the Modernization of Japanese Culture, Cambridge University Press 1979, p. 120.
77. Inagaki, Japan and the Pacific, p. 47.
78. Ibid, p. 54.
79. W. G. Beasley, Japanese Imperialism, 1894–1945, Clarendon Press, Oxford 1987, p. 9; see also Marius B. Jansen, ‘Japanese Imperialism: Late Meiji Perspectives’, in The Japanese Colonial Empire, 1895–1945, ed. Ramon Hawley Myers and Mark R. Peattie, Princeton University Press, 1984, pp. 61–79.
80. Uchida, Brokers of Empire, p. 394.
81. Quoted in Jansen, ‘Japanese Imperialism’, p. 64.
82. Akira Iriye, ‘Japan’s Drive to Great-Power Status’, in The Cambridge History of Japan, vol. 5: The Nineteenth Century, ed. Marius B. Jansen, Cambridge University Press 1989, pp. 753–5.
83. Dudden, Japan’s Colonization of Korea: Discourse and Power, pp. 47–8; see also Naoyuki Umemori, ‘The Historical Contexts of the High Treason Incident’, in Masako Gavin and Ben Middleton (eds), Japan and the High Treason Incident, Routledge, London and New York 2013, pp. 56–7.
84. Dudden, Japan’s Colonization of Korea, p. 101.
85. Tierney, Tropics of Savagery, p. 44.
86. Ibid, pp. 38–9.
87. Kōtoku Shūsui, L’impérialisme, le spectre du XXe siècle, translated into French by Christine Lévy, CNRS éditions, Paris 2008, p. 127.
88. Iriye, Pacific Estrangement, p. 76.
89. Naoyuki, ‘The Historical Context of the High Treason Incident’, p. 52.
90. See figures in Patrick O’Brien and Leandro Prados de la Escosura, ‘The Costs and Benefits for Europeans from their Empires Overseas’, Revista de Historia Económica, vol. 16, no. 1, Winter 1998, p. 61.
91. An excellent survey can be found in Richard Gott, Britain’s Empire: Resistance, Repression and Revolt, Verso, London 2012; see, for instance, pp. 138ff, 242, 108.
92. Shula Marks, Reluctant Rebellion: The 1906–8 Disturbances in Natal, Clarendon Press, Oxford 1970, p. 237.
93. John Iliffe, ‘The Organization of the Maji Maji Rebellion’, Journal of African History, vol. 8, no. 3, November 1967, esp. pp. 497–500.
94. Thomas Bender, A Nation among Nations, Hill and Wang, New York 2006, p. 230.
95. Ibid, p. 231.
96. See Marc Ferro, ‘Introduction’ to Le livre noir du colonialisme, Robert Laffont, Paris 2003.
97. On the massacre of the Herero people, see David Olusoga and Casper W. Erichsen, The Kaiser’s Holocaust: Germany’s Forgotten Genocide and the Colonial Roots of Nazism, Faber and Faber, London 2010.
98. Isabel V. Hull, Absolute Destruction: Military Culture and the Practices of War in Imperial Germany, Cornell University Press 2004, pp. 8, 11.
99. Ibid, pp. 25, 29, 33.
100. Ibid, pp. 57–9, 88.
101. BBC, ‘Germany Admits Namibia Genocide’: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3565938.stm
102. David Van Reybrouck, Congo: The Epic History of a People, Fourth Estate, London 2014, pp. 90–94.
103. Ibid, pp. 94–5.
104. Adam Hochschild, King Leopold’s Ghost: A Story of Greed, Terror, and Heroism in Colonial Africa, Macmillan, London 2000, p. 227.
105. Ibid, p. 229.
106. Ibid, pp. 231–3.
107. Émile Vandervelde, Les crimes de la colonisation capitaliste. Interpellation de Vandervelde au Gouvernement, Volksdrukkerij, Gand 1906, p. 10.
108. Émile Vandervelde, Les derniers jours de l’État du Congo. Journal de voyage (juillet–octobre 1908), Édition de la Société Nouvelle, Mons 1909, pp. 189–96.
109. Liebman, Les socialistes belges, 1885–1914, p. 221.
110. Ronald Robinson and John Gallagher, Africa and the Victorians: The Official Mind of Imperialism, Macmillan, London 1965.
111. Ronald Robinson, ‘European Imperialism and Indigenous Reactions in British West Africa, 1880–1914’, in H. L. Wesseling (ed.), Expansion and Reaction, Leiden University Press 1978, p. 144.
112. Bayly, Indian Society and the Making of the British Empire, pp. 110–11.
113. Maddison, Contours of the World economy, 1–2030 AD, p. 376.
114. Chamberlain, Foreign and Colonial Speeches, p. 144.
115. Ashley Jackson, The British Empire: A Very Short Introduction, Oxford University Press 2013, pp. 4–5.
116. Bernard Porter, The Lion’s Share: A Short History of British Imperialism, 1850–1970, Longman, London and New York, 1975, p. 2.
117. Spulber, Russia’s Economic Transitions, p. 7.
118. Porter, The Lion’s Share, p. 76.
119. Jules Ferry, speech of 28 July 1885 in 1885: le tournant colonial de la République. Jules Ferry contre Georges Clemenceau, introduction by Gilles Manceron, La Découverte/Poche, Paris 2007, pp. 60–62.
120. Gougeon, ‘Les élites dirigeantes dans l’Allemagne des années 1890’, p. 244.
121. Treitschke and Hausrath, Treitschke, pp. 200, 210.
122. Smith, ‘The Ideology of German Colonialism, 1840–1906’, pp. 643–4.
123. Treitschke and Hausrath, Treitschke, p. 203.
124. Arne Perras, Carl Peters and German Imperialism, 1856–1918, Oxford University Press 2004, pp. 197–9, 247–9.
125. On Weltpolitik see Aloys Schumacher, ‘L’Allemagne à la fin du XIXe siècle, l’illusion de la “Weltpolitik” et l’interrogation sur les limites de siècles’, in Les limites de siècles. Lieux de ruptures novatrices depuis les temps modernes, ed. Marita Gilli, Presses Universitaires Franc-Comtoises 1998, pp. 225–36.
126. Wehler, The German Empire, 1871–1918, p. 174.
127. Geoff Eley, Reshaping the German Right: Radical Nationalism and Political Change after Bismarck, Yale University Press 1980, pp. 173, 366.
128. Engels to Bebel, in Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, Collected Works, vol. 47: Letters 1883–1887, Lawrence and Wishart, London 2010, electronic edition, p. 55.
129. Smith, ‘The Ideology of German Colonialism, 1840–1906’, p. 655.
130. John Phillip Short, Magic Lantern Empire: Colonialism and Society in Germany, Cornell University Press 2012, p. 25.
131. Adrian Vickers, A History of Modern Indonesia, Cambridge University Press 2005, p. 13.
132. H. L. Wesseling, Imperialism and Colonialism: Essays on the History of European Expansion, Greenwood Press, Westport, CT 1997, pp. 79, 82.
133. Pierre van der Eng, ‘Exploring Exploitation: The Netherlands and Colonial Indonesia, 1870–1940’, Revista de Historia Económica, vol. 16, no. 1, Winter 1998, pp. 293, 299.
134. Duggan, Francesco Crispi, p. 695.
135. Raymond Jonas, The Battle of Adwa: African Victory in the Age of Empire, Harvard University Press 2011, pp. 3–4.
136. Giolitti, Discorsi extraparlamentari, p. 105.
137. Stefano Jacini, Pensieri sulla politica italiana, G. Civelli, Florence 1889, pp. 58ff; see also Maria Giovanna Missaggia, Stefano Jacini e la classe politica liberale, Leo S. Olschki, Florence 2003, p. 376. The term came to be used in French, mégalomanie, and from then in English.
138. Giovanni Federico, ‘Italy’s Late and Unprofitable Forays into Empire’, Revista de Historia Económica, vol. 16, no. 1, Winter 1998, p. 381.
139. Gramsci, Il Risorgimento, p. 102.
140. Gian Luca Podestà, ‘L’émigration italienne en Afrique orientale’, Annales de démographie historique, no. 113, 1, 2007, pp. 59–60.
141. Webster, Industrial Imperialism in Italy, 1908–1915, p. 51; on the large size of Italian emigration to Argentina see Friedman, ‘Beyond “Voting with their Feet”’, pp. 558–9.
142. Zamagni, The Economic History of Italy, 1860–1990, p. 123.
143. Alberti, Senza lavoro, p. 26.
144. Pedro Lains, ‘An Account of the Portuguese African Empire, 1885–1975’, Revista de Historia Económica, vol. 16, no. 1, Winter 1998, pp. 238–40.
145. Gervase Clarence-Smith, The Third Portuguese Empire, 1825–1975: A Study in Economic Imperialism, Manchester University Press 1983, p. 61.
146. Ibid, p. 83.
147. João Ferreira Duarte, ‘The Politics of Non-Translation: A Case Study in Anglo-Portuguese Relations’, T TR: , vol. 13, no. 1, 2000, p. 104: http://www.erudit.org/revue/TTR/2000/v13/n1/037395ar.pdf
148. A. H. de Oliveira Marques, Histoire du Portugal et de son empire colonial, Karthala, Paris 1998, p. 422.
149. Payne, A History of Spain and Portugal, p. 525.
150. Oliveira Marques, Histoire du Portugal et de son empire colonial, pp. 413–15.
151. Clarence-Smith, The Third Portuguese Empire, 1825–1975, pp. 105–6.
152. Fraile and Escribano, ‘The Spanish 1898 Disaster’, p. 265.
153. Ibid, p. 281.
154. Pierre Paul Leroy-Beaulieu, ‘Les États-Unis, puissance coloniale’, Revue des deux mondes, January 1902, p. 85.
155. Jose A. Lansang, ‘The Philippine-American Experiment: A Filipino View’, Pacific Affairs, vol. 25, no. 3, September 1952, p. 226.
156. Woodrow Wilson, ‘Democracy and Efficiency’, Atlantic Monthly, vol. 87, no. 521, March 1901, pp. 292, 297–8.
157. Theodore Roosevelt, ‘State of the Union Address’, 6 December 1904: http://www.infoplease.com/t/hist/state-of-the-union/116.html
158. The characterization of Roosevelt cited is Philip Secor’s; see his Presidential Profiles: From George Washington to G. W. Bush, iUniverse, Bloomington, IN 2008, p. 283.
159. Hofstadter, Social Darwinism in American Thought, p. 175.
160. Full text of Roosevelt’s speech ‘The Strenuous Life’, the Hamilton Club, Chicago, 10 April 1899: https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Strenuous_Life; see also Hofstadter, Social Darwinism in American Thought, p. 184.
161. William Graham Sumner, ‘The Conquest of the United States by Spain’, originally in The International Monthly then in War and Other Essays, Yale University Press 1911, pp. 303– 5.
162. Alexander Livingston, Damn Great Empires! William James and the Politics of Pragmatism, Oxford University Press 2016, p. 59.
163. ‘Death of Mr. Cecil Rhodes’, Manchester Guardian, 27 March 1902: https://www.theguardian.com/century/1899-1909/Story/0,,126334,00.html?redirection=centur y
164. For a more generous view of the East India Company see a view from India: Tirthankar Roy, The East India Company: The World’s Most Powerful Corporation, Allen Lane, Penguin Books India, New Delhi 2012, esp. pp. 174– 86.
165. Jeremy Bentham, An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation, cited by Nick Robins in the epilogue of The Corporation that Changed the World: How the East India Company Shaped the Modern Multinational, Pluto Press, London 2012.
166. Richard Bourke, Empire & Revolution: The Political Life of Edmund Burke, Princeton University Press 2015, p. 563.
167. Smith, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, p. 616.
168. Philip Lawson, The East India Company: A History, Longman, London 1993, p. 137.
169. Ibid, pp. 156–9.
170. H. V. Bowen, The Business of Empire: The East India Company and Imperial Britain, 1756–1833, Cambridge University Press 2006, p. 297.
171. Lawson, The East India Company, p. 162.
172. Bouda Etemad, ‘Grandeur et vicissitudes du débat colonial. Tendances récentes de l’histoire de la colonisation’, Tiers-Monde, vol. 28, no. 112, 1987, p. 804.
173. Bairoch, Economics and World History, p. 27.
174. See S. B. Saul, ‘The Export Economy 1870–1914’, Bulletin of Economic Research, vol. 17, no. 1, May 1965, pp. 5–18.
175. Robert Hughes, The Culture of Complaint: The Fraying of America, Oxford University Press 1993, p. 88.
176. Jacques Marseille, Empire colonial et capitalisme français. Histoire d’un divorce, Albin Michel, Paris 1984, p. 35.
177. Jean-François Sirinelli, ‘Guerre d’Algérie, guerre des pétitions?’, in Jean-Pierre Rioux and Jean-François Sirinelli (eds), La Guerre d’Algérie et les intellectuels français, Éditions Complexe, Brussels 1991, p. 290.
178. See video of press conference: http://www.ina.fr/fresques/de-gaulle/fiche-media/Gaulle00218/conference-de-presse-du-11-avril-1961.
179. Marseille, Empire colonial et capitalisme français, p. 359.
180. John Darwin, The Empire Project: The Rise and Fall of the British World System, 1830–1970, Cambridge University Press 2009, pp. 617–18.
181. Caroline Elkins, Imperial Reckoning: The Untold Story of Britain’s Gulag in Kenya, Holt and Co., New York 2005, pp. 144–5, 156ff.
182. William Hague, Statement of the Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs, House of Commons, 6 June 2013, Mau Mau Claims (Settlement): http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201314/cmhansrd/cm130606/debtext/130606-0002.htm#13060646000005
183. Bouda Etemad, De l’utilité des empires. Colonisation et prospérité de l’Europe, Armand Colin, Paris 2005, pp. 211–13.
184. R. J. Moore, ‘India and the British Empire’, in C. C. Eldridge (ed.), British Imperialism in the Nineteenth Century, Macmillan, London 1984, p. 74.
185. On the number of settlers see Pierre Brocheux and Daniel Hémery, Indochine: la colonisation ambiguë, 1858–1954, La Découverte, Paris 1995, p. 175.
186. Patrick O’Brien, ‘The Costs and Benefits of British Imperialism, 1846–1914’, Past & Present, no. 120, August 1988, p. 166.
187. Patrick O’Brien, ‘European Economic Development: The Contribution of the Periphery’, Economic History Review, vol. 35, no. 1, February 1982, pp. 1–18.
188. Bairoch, Economics and World History, pp. 72–3.
18. The Great Colonial Debate: The French and the British
1. An excellent survey of the debate is Avner Offer, ‘The British Empire, 1870– 1914: A Waste of Money?’, Economic History Review, vol. 46, no. 2, 1993, pp. 215–38. See also Michael Edelstein, Overseas Investment in the Age of High Imperialism: The United Kingdom, 1850–1914, Columbia University Press 1982; Lance E. Davis and Robert A. Huttenback, Mammon and the Pursuit of Empire: The Economics of British Imperialism, Cambridge University Press 1988; Etemad, ‘Grandeur et vicissitudes du débat colonial’, p. 799.
2. S. M. Mollan, ‘Business Failure, Capital Investment and Information: Mining Companies in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, 1900–1913’, Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, vol. 37, no. 2, June 2009, p. 230.
3. Landes, Unbound Prometheus, p. 241.
4. Hitchins, Rumania, pp. 188–9.
5. Berindei, ‘The Nineteenth Century’, p. 230.
6. Robinson, ‘European Imperialism and Indigenous Reactions’, p. 142.
7. Annie Rey-Goldzeiguer, Le royaume arabe. La politique algérienne de Napoléon III, 1861–1870, SNED, Algiers 1977, pp. 584–5.
8. D. C. M. Platt, ‘Economic Factors in British Policy during the “New Imperialism”’, Past & Present, no. 39, April 1968, p. 125.
9. Marseille, Empire colonial et capitalisme français, pp. 40–41, 50–51.
10. Jean Fremigacci, ‘L’état colonial français, du discours mythique aux réalités (1880– 1940)’, Matériaux pour l’histoire de notre temps, nos 32–3, 1993, p. 33.
11. Emma Rothschild, The Inner Life of Empires: An Eighteenth-Century History, Princeton University Press 2011, pp. 211–12.
12. Samuel Johnson, The Life of Savage, para 210: http://andromeda.rutgers.edu/~jlynch/Texts/savage.html
13. Smith, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, p. 498.
14. Hobson, ‘Free Trade and Foreign Policy’, pp. 172–5.
15. Ibid, p. 167.
16. Ibid, p. 168.
17. Ibid; see Richard Cobden’s speech made at Wrexham, in Wales, under the auspices of the Peace Society on 14 November 1850, and the speech he delivered before the Manchester Chamber of Commerce on 25 October 1862: http://www.econlib.org/library/YPDBooks/Cobden/cbdSPP.html
18. P. J. Cain
, ‘Variations on a Famous Theme: Hobson, International Trade and Imperialism, 1902–1938’, in Michael Freeden (ed.), Reappraising J. A. Hobson, Unwin Hyman, London 1990, p. 33.
19. Mill, Considerations on Representative Government, p. 322 (Chapter 18).
20. John Stuart Mill, ‘A Few Words on Non-Intervention’, in John Stuart Mill, Dissertations and Discussions: Political, Philosophical, and Historical, Longmans, Green, Reader, and Dyer, London 1867–75, vol. 3, pp. 167–8.
21. John Stuart Mill, ‘Civilization’, originally in London and Westminster Review, April 1836, reprinted in Mill, Dissertations and Discussions, vol. 1, p. 165.
22. James Lorimer, The Institutes of the Law of Nations: A Treatise of the Jural Relations of Separate Political Communities, vol. 1, Blackwood, Edinburgh 1883, pp. 102–3.
23. Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Specimens of the Table Talk of the Late Samuel Taylor Coleridge, John Murray, London 1835, vol. 2, p. 166: http://archive.org/stream/specimensoftable02cole#page/n5/mode/2up
24. Hegel, The Philosophy of History, p. 157.
25. Victor Hugo, ‘Discours sur l’Afrique’, 18 May 1879, in Actes et Paroles IV, in Politique, Robert Laffont, Paris 1985, p. 1,012.
26. Capitaine Renard, La colonisation au Congo Français. Étude sur les Concessions accordées au Congo en vertu du décret du 28 mars 1899, Kugelmann, Paris 1901, pp. 56ff.
27. See the account in Richard West, Brazza of the Congo: European Exploration and Exploitation in French Equatorial Africa, Jonathan Cape, London 1972, pp. 183–6.
28. Ibid, p. 188.
29. Ibid, p. 163.
30. John Flint, Cecil Rhodes, Hutchinson, London, 1976, pp. 248– 9.
31. H. C. G. Matthew, ‘Introduction’, in The Gladstone Diaries, vol. X: January 1881–June 1883, ed. H. C. G. Matthew, Clarendon Press, Oxford 1990, p. xc.
32. Peter Cain, ‘Was it Worth Having? The British Empire, 1850– 1950’, Revista de Historia Económica, vol. 16, no. 1, Winter 1998, p. 351.
33. Langer, The Diplomacy of Imperialism, 1890–1902, p. 77.
34. Ibid, p. 78.
35. This is the main thesis of Frank Trentmann’s Free Trade Nation, Oxford University Press 2008.
36. P. J. Cain and A. G. Hopkins, British Imperialism: Innovation and Expansion, 1688–1914, Longman, London 1993, pp. 141–3.
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