The Age of the Sages
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Christianity: contemporary, 225; human conception and the soul’s creation, 77; Zoroastrian influences, 32–36. See also Jesus
clothing: and Confucian discipline, 187–88; Mahavira’s renunciation, 146, 151
compassion: Axial Age, 228–29; bao, 162, 192; and concept of virtue in ancient Chinese religion, 161–62, 191–92; de, 161–62, 191–92; Mengzi and innate human goodness (ren xing), 194–97
Confucianism, 170–99; anthropocentrism, 176, 209; as both religion and philosophy, 177–78, 197; and China’s earlier golden age, 156, 175; and the Dao, 186–88, 203, 209–10; and Daoism, 200–202, 209–10; evil, 196, 197; family life and filial piety, 176, 182, 196; the gentleman (junzi), 179–83, 185–86, 189; government and society, 191–92, 194–95; heaven (Tian), 178; humaneness (ren), 180–82, 194–97; ideals for individuals and human relationships, 178–83; innate human goodness (ren xing), 194–97; li, 188–91, 198; Mengzi (Mencius), 194–97; moral self-cultivation, 173, 176–77, 185–92, 197–98; political philosophy, 173, 176; ritual, 178, 188–91; School of Scholars (rujia) and the Mengzi-Xunzi debate, 194–98; self and community, 227, 230; Wu Jing (the Five Classics), 187; Xunzi, 197–98. See also Confucianism after the Axial Age; Confucius; Daoism
Confucianism after the Axial Age, 198–99; Communist China, 199; current era, 199; Han dynasty, 199, 221; Qin dynasty, 165, 182, 198–99; Song dynasty and Neo-Confucianism, 199; suppression/persecution, 198–99
Confucius: Analects(Lunyu), 171, 172–73, 175–77, 180, 182, 183, 186, 187–88, 193; early life, 172; historical, 171–72; ideals for individuals and human relationships, 178–83; life of, 170–73; and Mandate of Heaven, 178; name, 172; personal qualities, 172–73; thought of, 175–83, 193–94; on worship, 176–77, 231. See also Confucianism
cosmic maintenance, 5–6, 14–16, 50–52, 229–30; Indo-Aryans, 50–52; Indo-Iranians, 14–16; story of the Purusha, 50–52
cosmogonies, 13; seven-stage Avestan cosmogony, 13–14, 50; Vedic story of the Purusha, 50–52
daevas, 12, 24–25, 34
Dalai Lama, 141
Daniel, book of, 33, 35
Dao, 203–7, 209–12; Chinese philosophy, 203–4; Confucian Way, 186–88, 203, 209–10; Daodejing and paradoxical nature of, 205–7; Daoist “way of nature” and the “universe’s mother,” 203–4; emptiness, 208–9, 219–20; images and metaphors, 207–9; limits to understanding and analysis, 204–5; taijitu symbol (yinyang), 206–7; twofold nature (named and nameless), 204–7; water, 207–8
Daodejing, 200–202, 203–12; Laozi and, 201–2; and paradoxical nature of Dao, 205–7; social and political philosophy, 210
Daoism, 200–221; aesthetics, 212; after the Axial Age, 220–21; and change/impermanence, 217–19; and Confucianism, 200–202, 209–10; the Dao, 203–7, 209–12; the Daodejing, 200–202, 203–12; the Daoist church, 221; the Daoist sage, 210–12, 216; and death, 218–19; following the Dao, 209–12; Laozi, 155, 201–2, 221; philosophical Daoism (daojia), 200–202, 213–21, 227; political philosophy, 210, 213–16; popular movements, 221; practice of wu wei, 213; religious Daoism (daojiao) (folk expression), 200–201, 220–21; rise of, 200–202; self-effacement, 211–12, 227; the Zhuangzi, 200, 215–16, 217–20; Zhuangzi and individual spiritual/mystical Daoism, 216–20
darshan, 92
Day of Judgment, 33
de, 161–62, 191–92
death: Axial Age attitudes, 3–4; Buddhist question of the individual after, 125; classical Hinduism and anxiety about, 55–57, 59–65; Indus Valley Civilization, 42; Nachiketas’s dialogue with Yama, 55–57, 60, 69; Rig Veda hymns, 45–47; Vedic Period, 45–47, 55–57, 60–61; Zhuangzi and Daoist acceptance of, 218–19; Zoroastrianism and bodily resurrection of the dead, 29; Zoroastrianism and individual destiny after death, 27–28. See also afterlife; rebirth
desire: attachment (clinging), 116–19, 124; frustration/fulfillment and unhappiness, 113–14; Second Noble Truth, 115–19; tanha, 116, 123–24; Third Noble Truth, 123–26
devas, 12, 44–45, 139
devil: Ahriman, 24–25, 34; daevas, 24–25, 34; Hebrew Bible, 34; Mara, 108; Satan, 34, 108; temptation by, 34, 108; Zoroastrianism, 24–25, 29, 34. See also evil
Dhamma, 109–11, 127, 133, 140; Ashoka’s embrace of, 140; the Buddha’s first discourse (“Turning the Wheel of Dhamma”), 109; Buddhist methodology and the principle of criticism, 111; early Sangha councils, 138–39; Four Noble Truths, 109–32; pragmatic criterion of truth, 111; the Sangha and dissemination of, 133–34, 135; stupas as physical representations, 137, 139
Dhammapada, 181n
di (earth), 158
Di (Shangdi), 159, 166
Digambaras (the sky-clad), 151
divination practices: contemporary Asia and the West, 157–58; oracle bones (“dragon bones”), 157, 158; Shang dynasty, 157–58; the Yi Jing, 165, 187
Diwali, festival of, 146, 225
dragon bones, 157, 158
druj, 13
drujvants, 17
Duke of Zhou (Dan), 166, 179
dukkha: and attachment (clinging), 116–19, 124; cause of (desire or craving), 115–19; of change (impermanence), 112; First Noble Truth, 111–14, 115; nibbana and the end of, 124; of physical pain and distress, 112; Second Noble Truth, 115–19; Third Noble Truth and cessation of, 123–26. See also Four Noble Truths
Durga, 91
Dyaoš (Dyaus-Pitr), 11–12
East Asia: Confucianism, 170–99; Daoism, 200–221; preaxial, 155–63; transition to the Axial Age, 165–73
East Asia, preaxial (ancient China), 155–63; ancestor reverence, 160–61, 162, 168; concept of virtue, 161–63, 191–92; divination practices, 157–58; divine-human relationships, 159–60; filial piety/indebtedness, 162–63; ghosts, 161; gods, 159–60; harmony between heaven and earth, 158–59, 163; mythic prehistory and golden age, 156, 175; politics and religion, 163; Shang dynasty religion, 156–63, 166, 168; Shang dynasty’s end, 165, 167. See also East Asian transition to the Axial Age
East Asian transition to the Axial Age, 165–73; Eastern Zhou period, 170; folk religion, 168–69; and life of Confucius, 171–72; Mandate of Heaven, 167–68, 178; political and cultural changes, 165–66; political/social disorder and Period of Warring States, 3, 170, 191, 194, 196, 197, 201, 217; Shang dynasty’s end, 165, 167; Spring and Autumn Age, 170, 171; Western Zhou period, 170; Zhou dynasty, 162, 165–69, 170; Zhou theology, 166–69. See also Confucius; Zhou dynasty
Ecclesiastes, book of, 33
Eisenstadt, S. N., 5, 231
Eliade, Mircea, 13n
Eliot, T. S., 104
Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 130
equanimity: the Confucian gentleman, 182–83; the Daoist sage, 212
Erikson, Erik, 144n
“ethicization,” 28
evil: Book of Odes and theistic problem of, 168–69; Confucianism, 196, 197; daevas, 24–25, 34; Frashokereti (eschatological battle), 29; Indo-Aryan asuras, 24, 45; and Mandate of Heaven, 168–69; Mengzi on human nature and, 196; Xunzi on human nature and, 197; Zoroastrianism, 24–25, 28–29, 34
Ezekiel, 22
family/filial piety: ancient Chinese religion, 162–63; Confucianism, 176, 182, 196. See also ancestor reverence
fire: Agni, 45; Indo-Iranian deity, 11, 14; Indo-Iranian rituals, 14, 15; Jainism and soul of, 148; and seven-stage Avestan cosmogony, 13–14; Vedic shrauta rites, 52–53; Zoroastrianism, 31
First Noble Truth, 111–14, 115
Five Aggregates of Being, 121–22
Five Precepts, 128–29; ahimsa, 128–29, 143; concerning use of intoxicants, 129; concerning misuse of language/speech, 129; concerning sexual misconduct, 128–29; concerning stealing/coveting, 128–29
Four Noble Truths, 109–32; attachment (clinging) and dukkha, 116–19, 124; First Noble Truth (dukkha), 111–14, 115; the idea of change/impermanence, 112, 118–19, 121; and nibbana, 124–25, 126–32; not-self (anatta), 119–22; Second Noble Truth (causes of dukkha), 115–19; and tanha, 116, 123–24; Third Noble Truth (cessation of du
kkha), 123–26; Fourth Noble Truth (Noble Eightfold Path), 126–32. See also Buddhism; Gotama, Siddhattha; Noble Eightfold Path
The Four Sights, 101–4
Fourth Noble Truth, 126–32. See also Noble Eightfold Path
Frashokereti, 29
Frazer, Sir James, 51
Gandharan Buddha images, 138
Gandhi, Mohandas, 143, 144n
Ganesha, 91
Ganges River basin (Gangetic Plains), 3, 55, 70, 104, 133, 145–47, 187
Gathas (Verses of Zoroaster), 21–22, 24–25, 30
Genesis, book of, 33–34, 75
gentleman (junzi), 179–83, 185–86, 189; humaneness (ren), 180–82; wisdom and equanimity, 182–83
Geush Urvan (“Soul of the Bull”), 12, 15
ghosts, 161
goddess worship, 40–41
gods/goddesses: ahuras, 12, 24–25; ancient Greek, 11–12, 138; anthropomorphic images, 91, 138, 224; asuras, 24, 45; the Buddha and the Hindu pantheon, 139; Confucius on, 176–77, 231; daevas, 12, 24–25, 34; devas, 12, 44–45, 139; Hindu iconography, 90–93; Hindu personal deities, 88–95; Indo-Iranian, 11–12, 14, 15–16; Indo-Iranian nature deities, 11, 14; ishta-devata, 92; Shang local gods, 159; Shang theology, 159–60; and Soma, 12, 15–16, 18, 53; and yazatas, 24; Zoroastrian theistic dualism, 24–25. See also worship; names of individual divine beings
Gotama, Siddhattha, 97–105, 107–14; awakening under the bodhi tree, 108; death and parinibbana, 136–37; early meditation teachers, 104; epiphanies near age of thirty, 99, 101–2, 103; first discourse (“Turning the Wheel of Dhamma”), 109; The Four Sights, 101–4; the historical Buddha and story embellishments, 98–104, 145; images/likenesses of, 138, 224; and Mahavira, 145; mindfulness meditation, 108; Pali Canon and Suttas, 98, 99, 101, 105, 109, 138, 141; renunciation/becoming novice shramana, 104–5, 107; royal family and early years, 99–101, 145; self-mortification, 105, 107; setting in motion the wheel of Dhamma, 109–11, 133; title of the Buddha, “the Awakened One,” 108. See also Buddhism; Four Noble Truths
government. See politics and government
Greece, ancient: aesthetics and first anthropomorphic representations of the Buddha, 138, 224; ghosts, 161; gods, 11–12, 138; notion of rebirth, 61–62
Han dynasty, 199, 221
harmony: and druj (disharmony and chaos), 13; heaven-earth and ancient Chinese maintenance of, 158–59, 163; taijitu symbol and Chinese ideal, 206–7
heaven: ancient Chinese maintenance of heaven-earth harmony, 158–59, 163; Jain home of the gods, 147–48; Mandate of Heaven (tianming), 167–68, 178; Mengzi on human goodness and, 197; paradise, 30, 34; Shang dynasty, 158–61; Tian, 166–67, 178; Zhou dynasty, 167–68; Zoroastrian, 33–34. See also afterlife
Hebrew Bible, 33–34, 75, 168
hell: Hebrew Bible (Sheol), 34; Jain underworld, 147; Satan, 34, 108; Zoroastrian, 28–29, 33–34
Heptad (the Seven), 22
Hick, John, 5
High Hara, 28
Hindu iconography, 90–93; anthropomorphic/nonanthropomorphic images, 91; and idolatry, 92–93; incarnations of divine reality, 91–92
Hinduism, classical, 54–95; atman, 76–77, 227; Brahman, 78–80, 89, 90, 93; Brahman-atman, 80–82, 87–88; concept of the self, 75–77, 227; death, 55–57, 59–65; end of Vedic Period/advent of the Axial Age, 54–57, 60–61; karma and the ethicization of rebirth, 64–65, 67–68, 71; knowledge, 71–73; paths to accommodate individual beliefs and tastes, 85–95; quest for liberation, 67–73, 94–95; rebirth/reincarnation, 61–65, 67–68; samsara and the problem of rebirth, 62, 68–73, 87–88; shramanas, 69–73, 85–87; Vedantic school, 75–83, 85–88, 89; worship of personal deities, 88–95. See also karma; Upanishads; Vedantic school
Hinduism, contemporary: bathing rituals, 42; the Buddha and, 139; goddess worship, 41; and Indus Valley Civilization, 39, 41, 42; and the Vedas (as shruti), 44
Hitler, Adolf, 43
householders, 70–71, 134
human nature: atman, 76–77; classical Hindu concept of human essence, 75–77; Confucian debate, 194–98; Confucian ideal of ren, 180–82, 194–97; Mengzi on innate human goodness (ren xing), 194–97; preaxial Aryans’ view of, 45–47; Xunzi on, 197–98. See also humaneness; self, concept of
humaneness: Confucian ideal of ren, 180–82, 194–97; at corporate and institutional levels, 230; li and Confucian program of self-cultivation, 188–91; and love, 181–82; Mengzi on innate human goodness (ren xing), 194–97; and reciprocity, 180–81
India: Ashoka and development of Buddhism in, 140; Jainism’s influence on, 143; preaxial South Asia, 10, 39–57. See also Buddhism; Hinduism, classical; Hinduism, contemporary; Indo-Aryans; Jainism
Indian Ocean tsunami (2004), 161
Indo-Aryans, 10, 43–57; asuras (evil beings), 24, 45; atman, 46, 76; brahman, 53–54, 78; Brahmin priests, 52–54, 78; caste, 52; cosmic maintenance and regeneration, 50–52; death and afterlife, 45–47, 55–57, 60–61; devas, 44–45; end of Vedic period/advent of Axial Age, 54–57, 60–61; expansion and urbanization, 55; human nature and destiny, 45–47; “Noble Ones,” 43–44; origins and the “Aryan question,” 43; Purusha and story of the world’s creation, 50–52, 78; shrauta rites, 52–53; and the Vedas, 44, 45–47; Vedic ritual and religion, 44, 47, 49–54, 55–57, 72. See also Hinduism, classical; Indus Valley Civilization; Vedic Period
Indo-Europeans, 9–19; cosmic maintenance, 14–16; cosmogonies, 13–14, 50; gods, 11–12, 15–16; Indo-Aryans, 10, 43–57; Indo-Iranians, 10–19; Irano-Aryans, 10, 12; languages, 9–10; morality and order, 12–13; the Rig Veda, 10, 43; ritual, 14–16; Soma, 12, 15–16, 18; split/divergence of branches, 10; worship of Indra, 18–19, 44–45. See also Indo-Aryans; Indo-Iranians; Zoroaster
Indo-Iranians, 10–19; ahuras, 12, 24; the Avesta, 10; cosmic maintenance, 14–16; daevas (devas), 12, 24; gods, 11–12, 15–16; Indra worship, 18–19, 44–45; laity, 11; language dialects, 10; migration and split, 10, 19, 43; morality and order, 12–13; nature deities, 11, 14; prayer, 31; priests, 11, 21–22; principle of order (rita/asha), 12–13; as raiders, 16–19, 22; religion, 11–16, 17–19; the Rig Veda, 10, 43; ritual, 14–16; sacred spaces, 14; sacrifices, 14, 15; seven-stage Avestan cosmogony, 13–14, 50; society and economy, 10–11; Soma, 15–16, 18, 53; warrior caste, 17–18, 52. See also Indo-Aryans
Indra, 18–19, 44–45, 76
Indrabhuti, 146
Indus Valley Civilization, 39–42, 43, 52, 61n; absence of afterlife/death concerns, 42; artifacts depicting sexuality and procreation, 40–41; bathing and ritual purity, 41–42; decline, 43; goddess religion, 40–41; meditation practices, 85; urban centers, 40. See also Indo-Aryans
“Inner Chapters,” 217
Irano-Aryans, 10, 12
ishta-devata, 92
Islam: human conception and the soul’s creation, 77; Zoroastrian influences, 32–36
Jainism, 143–51; and the Agam Sutras, 146; ahimsa, 143, 149–50; asceticism, 146, 150; and Buddhism, 143; cyclical time, 144, 147; fulfilling the five mahavratas (Great Vows), 149–50; Gandhi and, 143, 144n; influence on Indian history and religions, 143; karma/karmic defilement, 148–50; life, 148–49; Mahavira, 144–51; monastic communities, 146, 150–51; origins and the Tirthankaras, 144; path to liberation, 144, 149–51; principle of nonabsolutism, 149; reality, 149; rebirth, 62; renunciation of clothing, 146, 151; soul, 148–49; women/nuns, 151; world (underworld, middle realm, heavens), 147–48
Jambudvipa, 147–48
Jaspers, Karl, 1, 6
Jesus: baptism at the River Jordan, 22–23; birth and visit from the Magi, 36; and Satan, 34, 108; and the Son of Man, 35–36
jivanmuktas, 87
jñana, 73
Job, book of, 34, 168
Judaism: Axial Age, 1, 3; contemporary, 225; human conception and the soul’s creation, 77; messianic anticipations, 35–36; Zoroastrian influences, 32–36
junzi.See gentleman (junzi)
Kalamas, 110
karma, 64–65, 226; Buddhism, 125, 128; ce
ssation of, 149–50; classical Hinduism, 64–65, 67–68, 71; definition, 64–65; and ethicization of rebirth, 64–65, 67–68, 71; Jainism and karmic defilements, 148–50; removing, 150
Kierkegaard, Søren, 81
King, Martin Luther, Jr., 185
Kisagotami, 135–36
knowledge: Brahman as unknowable, 80; Confucian moral self-cultivation and love of learning, 186–87; jñana (gnōsis), 73; Noble Eightfold Path and cultivation of wisdom, 127; shramanas’ goal of a unified field theory (Theory of Everything), 72–73; shramanas’ quest for liberating knowledge, 71–73, 85–87; Vedantic school (Upanishads), 75–83, 85–88, 89; Vedic ritual and religion, 72
Krishna, 94–95
Kubera, 45
Laozi, 155, 201–2, 221
Legalism, 198–99
li, 188–91; dignity and manners, 188–89; in public ritual, 190–91; Xunzi’s view of, 198
liberation: the Buddha’s awakening under the bodhi tree, 108; Hindu quest for, 67–73, 94–95; Jainism, 144, 149–51; and karma, 149–50; liberating knowledge, 71–73; Mahavira’s attainment of perfect enlightenment, 146; Mahavira’s discipline for attaining, 149–51; samsara and the problem of rebirth, 62, 68–73; and shramanas, 69–73; through devotion, 94–95. See also moksha;samsara
lingam, 41, 91
love: Confucian love of learning, 186–87; Confucius and the quality of ren, 181–82; Confucius on filial piety and, 182; Mengzi on parental love, 196; Mohists on virtue of universal love, 181–82
Magi, 36
Mahavira, 144–51; and the Agam Sutras, 146; asceticism and mortification, 146; attainment of perfect enlightenment, 146; birth and parents, 145; and the Buddha, 145; discipline for attaining liberation, 149–51; followers and disciples, 146; and Jain worldview, 146–49; life story, 145–46; renunciation and becoming a shramana, 145–46; renunciation of clothing, 146, 151. See also Jainism