The Port Chicago 50
Page 14
Schubert, Frank N. “Buffalo Soldiers at San Juan Hill.” Paper delivered by the author at the 1998 Conference of Army Historians in Bethesda, Maryland.
“Testimony Continues in Navy Trial,” People’s World, September 19, 1944.
“Torpedo Hit the Arizona First, Navy Men of Pearl Harbor Say,” New York Times, December 22, 1941.
“Trial of Negro Sailors Begins,” People’s World, September 18, 1944.
Vernon, John. “Jim Crow, Meet Lieutenant Robinson: A 1944 Court-Martial.” Prologue, publication of the National Archives, Spring 2008, 36–43.
“Witnesses Awed by Pyrotechnics,” New York Times, July 19, 1944.
“Were Navy Trial Statements Fixed?” People’s World, October 19, 1944.
Wollenberg, Charles. “Blacks vs. Navy Blue: The Mare Island Mutiny Court-martial,” California History, Vol. 58, No. 1 (Spring 1979), 62–75.
Oral Histories & Documentaries
Bordenave, Martin. Interview by Robert Allen, August 23, 1980.
Boykin, Sammie L. Interview by Tracey Panek, Oral History Interview project for the Port Chicago Naval Magazine National Memorial, National Parks Service, August 14, 1999.
Crittenden, Jack. Interview by Robert Allen, July 22, 1980.
Edwards, Robert. Interview by Tracey Panek, March 10, 1995.
Gay, Willie. Interview by Robert Allen, December 14, 1977.
Jameson, DeWitt. Interview by Tracey Panek, August 13, 1999.
Meeks, Freddie. Interview by Robert Allen, August 24, 1980.
Port Chicago Mutiny documentary film. Frank Productions, Inc., for The Learning Channel, 1999.
Port Chicago Mutiny: A National Tragedy documentary film, Chronicle Broadcasting Company of San Francisco, 1990.
Reminiscences of Thurgood Marshall. Columbia University, Columbia Center for Oral History, New York, 1977.
Rich, Morris. Interview by Tracey Panek, July 17, 1999.
Robinson, Percy. Interview by Robert Allen, May 20, 1978.
Routh, Robert. Interview by Robert Allen, May 21, 1978.
Sheppard, Cyril. Interview by Robert Allen, October 20, 1977.
Sikes, Spencer E. Interview by Tracey Panek, November 11, 1995.
Small, Joseph R. Interviews by Robert Allen, September 6, 1977; June 3, 1978; June 10, 1978.
Soublet, Morris J., Sr. Interview by Tracey Panek, April 10, 1999.
Tenger, Harold A., Interview by Tracey Panek, July 30, 1999.
“The Port Chicago 50: An Oral History,” Radio Program, broadcast on This American Life in 1996.
Waldrop, Edward. Interview by Robert Allen, December 9, 1977.
Wiley, Duane F. Interview by Tracey Panek, March 9, 2000.
U.S. Navy Records
“Commanding Officer Praises Negro Personnel Who Served at Port Chicago After Explosion Monday Night,” U.S. Navy. Press and Radio Release, 20 Jul. 1944.
“Guide to Command of Negro Naval Personnel.” Pamphlet published for the information and guidance of all Naval officers. Navy Department, Bureau of Naval Personnel, 12 February 1945.
“Record of Proceedings of a Court of Inquiry Convened at the U.S. Naval Magazine, Port Chicago, California,” July 21, 1944. Navy Judge Advocate General’s Office, Washington, D.C.
Trial Transcript, General Court-Martial, “Case of Julius J. Allen, Seaman Second Class, U.S. Naval Reserve, et al.,” September 14–October 24, 1944. Navy Judge Advocate General’s Office, Washington, D.C.
Acknowledgments
First off, thanks to my brother-in-law, Eric Person, who first brought this story to my attention. While I was researching a previous book, Bomb (on the race to make the first atomic bomb), Eric asked if I’d heard the theory that the first atomic test was not in the New Mexico desert in July 1945, as recorded in history, but a year earlier at a California naval base called Port Chicago. Intrigued, I looked into it. Basically, the speculation is that the July 1944 disaster at Port Chicago was not an accidental munitions blast—supposedly it was an atomic bomb, part of a top-secret government test of the new technology. There’s absolutely no credible evidence to support this. Still, investigating the conspiracy theory led me to the true story of what happened at Port Chicago and, eventually, to the writing of this book.
Step one for me was to read Dr. Robert Allen’s remarkable book, The Port Chicago Mutiny. I then contacted Robert (he said I could call him that) and asked how I could find out more about this little-known chapter of civil rights history. After directing me to the scant supply of written sources, he suggested that if I really wanted to explore this story I should come to the memorial event held each year at the site of the Port Chicago disaster. A few Port Chicago veterans still attend, he explained, though at this point it’s mostly younger generations of family members and friends.
I flew to San Francisco in July 2011, and not only did Robert drive me to the memorial event, he spent three days taking me around the Bay Area and introducing me to the amazing community of people who are working to keep the Port Chicago story alive. Spencer Sikes told me stories of his father, who served at Port Chicago, and shared his one-of-a-kind Port Chicago photo collection. Reverend Diana McDaniel told me about the work of the Friends of Port Chicago National Memorial—check this organization out online for lots more on the ongoing effort to exonerate the fifty sailors convicted of mutiny, and how to get involved.
At the end of my visit, Robert allowed me to make photocopies of the transcripts of the oral history interviews he conducted with Joseph Small and many of the other Port Chicago sailors. This is priceless material; it literally does not exist anywhere else. My deepest thanks to Robert for his generosity, encouragement, and helpful suggestions along the way.
Thanks to LT. S. B. Gaston, USN, for patiently answering many questions about naval ranks and terminology. Thanks also to the whole Roaring Brook and Macmillan team, especially Deirdre Langeland for her insightful and demanding (in a good way) edits, and Simon Boughton for his enthusiastic support for this project. Thanks to my longtime agent, Ken Wright, for helping to get this project going, and to Susan Cohen for so expertly taking over the reins. Thanks again to my friends at my unofficial office, the Saratoga Springs Public Library. And most of all, as always, thanks to my wife Rachel, for everything.
Picture Credits
Bettmann/Corbis/AP Images
Getty Images
Wikimedia Commons
Getty Images/Time-Life Pictures
Naval Historical Center, Department of the Navy, official U.S. Navy photograph, photo 80-G-399009
Courtesy Robert Allen
U.S. Navy photograph, National Archives
U.S. Navy photograph, National Archives
U.S. Navy photograph, courtesy Port Chicago Naval Magazine National Memorial, POCH115
U.S. Navy photograph, courtesy Port Chicago Naval Magazine National Memorial, POCH117
U.S. Navy photograph, courtesy Port Chicago Naval Magazine National Memorial, POCH114
U.S. Navy photograph, courtesy Port Chicago Naval Magazine National Memorial, POCH113
U.S. Navy photograph, Courtesy Port Chicago Naval Magazine National Memorial, POCH117
Library of Congress Prints & Photographs Division, NYWT&S Collection, LC-USZ62-112129
Associated Press
U.S. Navy photograph, courtesy Port Chicago Naval Magazine National Memorial, POCH110
Courtesy Spencer Sikes II (son of Port Chicago explosion survivor)
Adapted from a diagram found in “Record of Proceedings of a Court of Inquiry Convened at the U.S. Naval Magazine, Port Chicago, California,” July 21, 1944. Navy Judge Advocate General’s Office, Washington, D.C.
U.S. Navy photograph, courtesy Port Chicago Naval Magazine National Memorial, POCH0064
U.S. Navy photograph, courtesy Port Chicago Naval Magazine National Memorial, POCH92
U.S. Navy photo. Courtesy Port Chicago Naval Magazine National Memorial. POCH 126
Courtesy the Shreveport Times
Associated Press
AP Images
A.P Photo/U.S. Navy
Official U.S. Navy photograph, from the collection of the Naval Historical Center
Oakland Tribune 10/17/1944. The Oakland Tribune Collection, the Oakland Museum of California. Gift of ANG Newspapers
Copyright unknown, courtesy of Harry S. Truman Library
Trial transcript, general court-martial, “Case of Julius J. Allen, Seaman Second Class, U.S. Naval Reserve at al.,” September 14–October 24, 1944. Navy Judge Advocate General’s Office, Washington, D.C.
Courtesy Robert Allen
Trial transcript, general court-martial, “Case of Julius J. Allen, Seaman Second Class, U.S. Naval Reserve at al.,” September 14–October 24, 1944. Navy Judge Advocate General’s Office, Washington, D.C.
National Archives and Records Administration
Prints and Photographs Division, Library of Congress
Associated Press
Courtesy Robert Allen
Mike Kepka/San Francisco Chronicle/Corbis
Associated Press
INDEX
The index that appeared in the print version of this title does not match the pages in your eBook. Please use the search function on your eReading device to search for terms of interest. For your reference, the terms that appear in the print index are listed below.
A
African Americans: assignment after boot camp, expectation about; assignments available to black servicemembers; combat service and fighting, eagerness for; dishonorable discharge for speaking out about racism; eagerness to serve in Navy; fear of; Navy Cross award to; Navy position available to; number of personnel at Port Chicago; service of in wars before World War II; temperament and intelligence for handling explosives. See also segregation and racism
Allen, Robert
Ammunition, bombs, and explosives: accidental explosion, danger of; betting on speed of loading duties; black sailors assignment to loading duties; dye capsule in bomb nose; fear of black sailors about loading duties; feelings about handling; handling and loading duties; hot cargo (incendiary bombs); Marshall and questions about Port Chicago conditions; pace and safety of loading duties; punishment for men who returned to loading duties; refusal of loading duties at Mare Island; return to loading duties at Mare Island; rough and careless handling as cause of explosion; safety regulations for handling; shift schedule for loading; training to handle; white sailors and ammunition loading duties; winch operations. See also explosion at Port Chicago
Anthony, Douglas
Armstrong, Daniel
Army and Army Air Corps
B
Bannon, Louis
Barge prison: discussion between Small and Delucchi before boarding; discussions between sailors aboard; sailors transfer to
Barracks: damage from explosion to; discussions about loading duties in; injuries to sailors in; lights out activities; list circulated in
Bell, Rieves
Blood supplies
Bordenave, Martin: assignment after boot camp, expectation about; court-martial and sentence; defense strategy; eagerness to serve in Navy; feelings about importance of decision; prejudices against black sailors; refusal of loading duties
Bryan (E.A. Bryan)
C
Camp Shoemaker
Carr, Albert
Civilian Conservation Corps
Civil rights: foundation of movement; Marshall role in fight for; Port Chicago 50 and fight for
Coakley, James
Combat service and fighting, eagerness for
Court-martial: appeal of verdict; closing arguments; cross-examination testimony; defense lawyers; defense strategy and testimony; location of and setting for; Marshall interest and involvement in; members of the court; overturning conviction; press coverage of; prosecution lawyers; prosecution strategy and questioning; reconsideration of case; rigging of against accused men; Small testimony; testimony about Small; transcript of; verdict and sentencing. See also Port Chicago 50
Crittenden, Jack: eagerness to serve in Navy; pardon, feelings about; prison barge; questioning of about mutiny; recovery of bodies from explosion; refusal of loading duties as mutiny; refusal of loading duties at Mare Island; verdict and sentencing
D
Delucchi, Ernest: accidental explosion, danger of; betting on speed of loading duties; character of; conversation with Small about prison barge; court-martial testimony; opinions about; pace of loading duties; refusal of loading duties at Mare Island; Small promotion, opinion about
Dixson, Julius
Dunn, John
E
Edwards, Robert
Explosion at Port Chicago: bravery of black soldiers after blast; cause of; compensation for victims and families; deaths from; debris from; descriptions of and damage from; injuries to sailors in barracks; inquiry into; investigation into, call by Marshall for; memorial service for victims; pier and ships, destruction of; real story about, interest of sailors in; recovery of bodies from
F
Flowers, Jefferson
Forrestal, James: appeal of verdict; court-martial, interest in by; integration of crews; Marshall and questions about Port Chicago conditions; Marshall involvement in court-martial; memo about explosion and recommendations for punishment; Navy policy toward black sailors; reconsideration of case; white sailors and ammunition loading duties; Wright report to about black sailors
Freedom, fighting for
G
Gay, Willie
Goss, Nelson
Granger, Lester
Gray, Joseph
Great Lakes training center
Green, Edward
Green, Nora
Green, Oliver “Ollie”
H
Harlem Hellfighters
Henry, Frank
“Honorable conditions” discharge
I
Integration of military services
J
James, Joseph
Jameson, DeWitt
Johnson, Edward
K
King, Martin Luther, Jr.
Kinne, Merrill T.
Knox, Frank
L
Liberty days
M
Mare Island Naval Shipyard, refusal of loading duties at
Marine Corps: African Americans in; guard duty by marines; racial tensions between servicemembers
Marshall, Thurgood; appeal of verdict; civil rights role; Constitution, memorization of; early life of; end of segregation in military services, reaction to; interest and involvement in court-martial; investigation into explosion, call for; NAACP attorney role; Port Chicago conditions, questions about; representation of black servicemen by
McPherson, Alphonso
Meeks, Freddie; cause of explosion; feelings about importance of decision; handling and loading explosives; life after leaving the Navy; Marshall involvement in court-martial; Port Chicago, appearance of area; presidential pardon for; refusal of loading duties at Mare Island; training to handle explosives
Military services: integration of; morale of black servicemembers; segregation and racism in; service of African Americans in wars before World War II; tensions and friendships between servicemembers
Miller, Dorie
Morehouse, Carleton
Mutiny: charges of; consequences of; definition of; evidence gathering and interrogations about; refusal of loading duties as; Small’s role in. See also court-martial; Port Chicago 50
N
National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP): founding of; legal help for accused mutineers; Marshall as attorney for; pamphlet about prisoners; purpose of
Navy: assignments after boot camp; danger of jobs in; eagerness of African Americans to serve in; integration of crews; number of African Americans in; policy toward black sailors; positions available to black; refusal to obey orders, consequences of; segregation and racism in; tensions and friendships between black and white sailors
Navy Cro
ss award
Nimitz, Chester
O
Osterhaus, Hugh
P
Parks, Rosa
Port Chicago 50: appeal of verdict; daily activities for; feelings about importance of decision; life after leaving the Navy; NAACP pamphlet about; overturning conviction of; presidential pardons for; publicity about; release from prison and return to active duty; respect for and treatment of; sentencing after court-martial. See also barge prison; court-martial; mutiny
Port Chicago Naval Magazine: African Americans assignment to; appearance of area; commanding officer’s feeling about minority personnel; feelings about being assigned to; importance of work at; morning routine at; number of personnel at; transfer of black sailors from. See also ammunition, bombs, and explosives
Prisoner sailors. See Port Chicago 50
Q
Quinalt Victory
R
Rich, Morris
Ringquist, Glen
Robinson, Jackie
Robinson, Percy; assignment after boot camp, expectation about; cause of explosion; dye capsule in bomb nose; eagerness to serve in Navy; feelings about importance of decision; feelings about Navy experience; frayed nerves of sailors; Great Lakes training center experience; handling and loading explosives; injury to from explosion; journal kept by; life after leaving the Navy; mutiny and refusal to obey orders; opinion about Delucchi; pace of loading duties; Port Chicago, appearance of area; refusal of loading duties at Mare Island; return to loading duties at Mare Island
Roosevelt, Eleanor
Roosevelt, Franklin D.
Roosevelt, Teddy
Routh, Robert: feelings about being assigned to Port Chicago; feelings about Navy experience; foreboding about day; Great Lakes training center experience; injury to from explosion; liberty days; life after leaving the Navy; lights out activities; Port Chicago, appearance of area; recruitment of; refusal of loading duties, feeling about
S
Sangay
Section Eight discharge
Segregation and racism: desegregation on base; discrimination against black sailors; dishonorable discharge for speaking out about; government inaction about; Marshall and cases about; Navy policy toward black sailors; prejudices and segregation in the military; in schools; tensions and friendships between servicemembers; in towns near military bases; treatment on liberty days; unconstitutionality of segregation. See also integration of military services