“It poses an untenable choice”: Lewis R. Katz, “In Search of a Fourth Amendment for the Twenty-First Century,” Indiana Law Journal, Volume 65, Issue 3, Article 2 (1990). Available at: https://www.documentcloud.org/documents/3860670-In-Search-of-a-Fourth-Amendment-for-the-Twenty.html#document/p42/a356725.
As Orin Kerr, a law professor: Orin S. Kerr, “The Case for the Third-Party Doctrine,” Michigan Law Review, Vol. 107-561 (2009). Available at: https://www.documentcloud.org/documents/3515439-SSRN-id1138128-1.html#document/p3/a356944.
He’s argued that: Orin Kerr and Greg Nojeim, “The Data Question: Should the Third-Party Records Doctrine Be Revisited?” ABA Journal (August 2012). Available at: http://www.abajournal.com/magazine/article/the_data_question_should_the_third-party_records_doctrine_be_revisited.
In 2012, in the case of United States v. Jones: United States v. Jones, No. 10–1259 (2012). Available at: https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/10-1259.
The following month, the FBI applied: Fourth Superseding Indictment, US v. Carpenter, 12-20218, USDC Eastern Michigan, July 10, 2013. Available at: https://www.documentcloud.org/documents/3861742-US-v-Carpenter-Fourth-superseding-indictment.html.
Specifically, the government sought a d-order: 18 U.S. Code § 2703. Available at: https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/18/2703.
This is not a trivial distinction: David Gray, Stephen Henderson, The Cambridge Handbook of Surveillance Law, (Cambridge University Press, 2017)
“That’s important because judges”: Author’s interview with Nathan Freed Wessler, June 12, 2017.
The 6th Circuit called out the ACLU’s: US v. Carpenter, 14-1572/1805 (6th Cir., 2016). Available at: https://www.documentcloud.org/documents/3861614-Show-Temp-45.html#document/p12/a357067.
“I would have felt constrained by the logic”: Author’s correspondence with Stephen Sachs, June 14, 2017.
In short, absent further guidance: Author’s phone conversation with Stephen Sachs, August 14, 2017.
“I believe Katz must be replaced”: Author’s correspondence with Stephen Sachs, June 14, 2017.
“I think the Court will attempt”: Author’s correspondence with Stephen Sachs, November 29, 2017.
Chapter Four
The system was kind of: Amanda Pike and G. W. Schulz, “Hollywood-style surveillance technology inches closer to reality,” Reveal News, April 11, 2014. Available at: https://www.revealnews.org/article-legacy/hollywood-style-surveillance-technology-inches-closer-to-reality/.
At one of the world’s most: Author’s interview with Mike Katz-Lacabe, July 10, 2017.
The 45-year-old: Chris Soghoian, Ashkan Soltani, Ben Wizner, and Catherine Crump, “Can You Track Me Now? Government and Corporate Surveillance of Mobile Geo-Location Data,” DEF CON 2012. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NjuhdKUH6U4.
As an experienced ACLU attorney: Author’s interview with Catherine Crump, July 13, 2017.
“He struck me as an old-school”: Author’s interview with Jennifer Valentino-DeVries, July 12, 2017.
So, what provides the legal authority: George Joseph, “What Are License-Plate Readers Good For?” Citylab, August 5, 2016. Available at: https://www.citylab.com/equity/2016/08/what-are-license-plate-readers-good-for/492083/.
Katz-Lacabe attended: S. Hick, E. Halpin, and E. Hoskins, Human Rights and the Internet (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2000), p. 100.
“thwart armed communist insurgencies”: US Army School of the Americas, “Frequently Asked Questions,” April 1999. Available at: https://web.archive.org/web/19990428095558/http://www.benning.army.mil/usarsa/FAQ/FAQ.htm.
As that work evolved, he: Niall McKay, “Hacktivists Join Activists,” Wired, November 20, 1998. Available at: https://www.wired.com/1998/11/hacktivists-join-activists/.
In 2000, Katz-Lacabe: “Full Biography for Mike Katz-Lacabe,” Smartvoter.org, 2014. Available at: http://www.smartvoter.org/2014/11/04/ca/alm/vote/katz-lacabe_m/bio.html.
A few months later: Jennifer Valentino-DeVries, “New Tracking Frontier: Your License Plate,” The Wall Street Journal, 2012. Available at: https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10000872396390443995604578004723603576296.
On March 30, 2009: Denise Green v. City and County of San Francisco, 3:10-cv-02649 (2010). Available at: https://www.documentcloud.org/documents/3892488-Green-v-San-Francisco-LPR-case.html.
Later, as part of her civil: David Kravets, “License Plate Reader Error Leads to Traffic Stop at Gunpoint, Court Case,” Ars Technica, 2017. Available at: https://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2014/05/after-being-held-at-gunpoint-due-to-lpr-error-woman-gets-day-in-court/.
Fourteen years after the FBI: “License Plate Reader Technology Enhances the Identification, Recovery of Stolen Vehicles,” Federal Bureau of Investigation, 2011. Available at: https://www.fbi.gov/services/cjis/cjis-link/license-plate-reader-technology-enhances-the-identification-recovery-of-stolen-vehicles.
These are essentially specialized: “3M™ Mobile ALPR Camera P634” 3M, 2017. Available at: http://www.3m.com/3M/en_US/company-us/all-3m-products/~/3M-Mobile-ALPR-Camera-P634?N=5002385+8709322+8709393+3292106901&rt=rud.
The three largest vendors of LPR: “3M Completes Sale of Tolling and Automated License/Number Plate Recognition Business,” 3M Press Release, June 30, 2017. Available at: http://investors.3m.com/news/press-release-details/2017/3M-Completes-Sale-of-Tolling-and-Automated-LicenseNumber-Plate-Recognition-Business/default.aspx.
These companies routinely encourage: “Find Out How to File for Law Enforcement Grants and Funding,” Elsag, 2017. Available at: https://www.elsag.com/how-to-buy/law-enforcement-grants-guide.
In 2014, for example: “Central Marin Police Authority UASI ALRP Grant,” 2014. Available at: https://www.documentcloud.org/documents/3890356-Central-Marin-Police-Authority-UASI-ALRP-Grant.html.
However, there have never been: George Joseph, “What Are License-Plate Readers Good For?” Citylab, August 5, 2016. Available at: https://www.citylab.com/equity/2016/08/what-are-license-plate-readers-good-for/492083/.
Depending on the retention: “Automated License Plate Readers: State Statutes Regulating Their Use,” National Council of State Legislators, 2017. Available at: http://www.ncsl.org/research/telecommunications-and-information-technology/state-statutes-regulating-the-use-of-automated-license-plate-readers-alpr-or-alpr-data.aspx.
Police in Oakland, California: Cyrus Farivar, “Cops Decide to Collect Less License Plate Data After 80GB Drive Got Full,” Ars Technica, August 26, 2015. Available at: https://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2015/08/cops-decide-to-collect-less-license-plate-data-after-80gb-drive-got-full/.
While many people might feel: Y. de Montjoye, C. Hidalgo, M. Verleysen, and V. Blondel, “Unique in the Crowd: The Privacy Bounds of Human Mobility,” Nature, 2013.
To be fair, the snapshot that an LPR: Cyrus Farivar, “Your Car, Tracked: The Rapid Rise of License Plate Readers,” Ars Technica, September 27, 2012. Available at: https://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2012/09/your-car-tracked-the-rapid-rise-of-license-plate-readers/.
“The collection itself and”: Author’s interview with Kade Crockford, July 6, 2017.
On its website, Elsag touts: “Greatest Hits: Kansas,” Elsag, 2017. Available at: https://www.documentcloud.org/documents/3890353-17d034-ELS-Greatest-Hits-March-r2.html.
In 2015, in a higher-profile example: Cyrus Farivar, “Don’t Let Roanoke Murderer Justify a License Plate Reader Rise,” Ars Technica, August 31, 2015. Available at: https://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2015/08/yes-a-license-plate-reader-helped-nab-roanoke-shooter-but-thats-a-rare-win.
However, these success stories: Mike Katz-Lacabe, “Piedmont License Plate Reader Analysis Shows 99.97% of Data Collected Is Useless,” Center fo
r Human Rights and Privacy, September 7, 2015. Available at: https://www.cehrp.org/piedmont-license-plate-reader-analysis-shows-99-97-of-data-collected-is-useless/.
In fact, more than 99 percent: Catherine Crump, “Police Documents on License Plate Scanners Reveal Mass Tracking,” American Civil Liberties Union, 2013. Available at: https://www.aclu.org/blog/police-documents-license-plate-scanners-reveal-mass-tracking.
The Knotts case is reminiscent: Leroy Knotts and Daryl Petschen did not respond to the author’s numerous requests for an interview.
According to court filings: Appellee’s Brief, United States v. Knotts, 80-1952 (8th Cir., 1980). Available at: https://www.documentcloud.org/documents/3512651-80-1952-Appellee-s-Brief.html#document/p11/a361662.
Petschen took Armstrong: Appellant’s Brief, United States v. Knotts, 80-1952 (8th Cir., 1980). Available at: https://www.documentcloud.org/documents/3512650-80-1952-Appellant-s-Brief.html#document/p12/a361648.
This beeper—a low-range FM radio: Oral Arguments, United States v. Knotts, 460 U.S. 276 (1983). Available at: https://www.oyez.org/cases/1982/81-1802.
Armstrong took the drum to Petschen’s: Appellant’s Brief, United States v. Knotts, 80-1952 (8th Cir., 1980). Available at: https://www.documentcloud.org/documents/3512650-80-1952-Appellant-s-Brief.html#document/p15/a361653.
But Petschen’s losing the police: Ibid. Available at: https://www.documentcloud.org/documents/3512652-80-1952-Opinion.html#document/p2/a361657.
Four days later, on March 3, 1980: Ibid. Available at: https://www.documentcloud.org/documents/3512650-80-1952-Appellant-s-Brief.html#document/p16/a361654.
“Back then the monitoring”: Author’s interview with Mark Peterson, March 7, 2017.
“Resolution of this contention”: Appellant’s Brief, United States v. Knotts, 80-1952 (8th Cir., 1980). Available at: https://www.documentcloud.org/documents/3512650-80-1952-Appellant-s-Brief.html#document/p19/a361658.
The government, in its responding: Ibid. Available at: https://www.documentcloud.org/documents/3512651-80-1952-Appellee-s-Brief.html#document/p21/a361663.
Plus, Department of Justice lawyers: Ibid. Available at: https://www.documentcloud.org/documents/3512651-80-1952-Appellee-s-Brief.html#document/p23/a361664.
In October 1981, the 8th Circuit: Opinion, United States v. Knotts, 80-1952 (8th Cir., 1980). Available at: https://www.documentcloud.org/documents/3512652-80-1952-Opinion.html#document/p3/a342530.
At oral arguments, which: Oral Arguments, United States v. Knotts, 460 U.S. 276 (1983). Available at: https://www.oyez.org/cases/1982/81-1802.
This was a direct reference: Opinion, United States v. Bruneau, 78-1526 (8th Cir., 1979). Available at: https://www.leagle.com/decision/19791784594f2d119011590.
As part of its analysis: Kara Cook, “Electronic Tracking Devices and Privacy: See No Evil, Hear No Evil, But Beware of Trojan Horses,” Loyola University of Chicago Law Journal 9, no. 227 (1977). Available at: https://www.documentcloud.org/documents/3891952-Electronic-Tracking-Devices-and-Privacy-See-No.html#document/p22/a361950.
Cook’s language was echoed: United States v. Knotts, 460 U.S. 276 (1983). Available at: https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/460/276/case.html.
“The invasion of privacy”: Author’s interview with Andrew Frey, July 15, 2017.
In 1997, an officer: Avis Thomas-Lester and Toni Locy, “Chief’s Friend Accused of Extortion,” The Washington Post, November 26, 1997. Available at: http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/local/longterm/library/dc/dcpolice/stories/stowe25.htm.
Documents released by DEA: e-mail, April 17, 2009. https://www.documentcloud.org/documents/3892472-33780-33791-2014-03-31-Response.html#document/p4/a362134.
In 2012, the New York Police Department: Adam Goldman and Matt Apuzzo, “With Cameras, Informants, NYPD Eyed Mosques,” Associated Press, February 23, 2012. Available at: https://www.ap.org/ap-in-the-news/2012/with-cameras-informants-nypd-eyed-mosques.
The following year, the NYPD: Chris Francescani, “NYPD Expands Surveillance Net to Fight Crime as Well as Terrorism,” Reuters, June 21, 2013. Available at: http://www.reuters.com/article/usa-ny-surveillance-idUSL2N0EV0D220130621.
In September 2014, an enterprising reporter: Eric Roper, “Aug. 17, 2012: City Cameras Track Anyone, Even Minneapolis Mayor Rybak,” Star Tribune, August 17, 2012. Available at: http://www.startribune.com/aug-17-2012-city-cameras-track-anyone-even-minneapolis-mayor-rybak/166494646/.
In January 2015, through a public records: Dave Maass and Jeremy Gillula, “What You Can Learn from Oakland’s Raw ALPR Data,” Electronic Frontier Foundation, January 21, 2015. Available at: https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2015/01/what-we-learned-oakland-raw-alpr-data.
Meanwhile, in November 2015: Dakota Smith, “LA City Council Proposal Would Send John Letters to Owners of Cars in Prostitution Areas,” Los Angeles Daily News, November 25, 2015. Available at: http://www.dailynews.com/social-affairs/20151125/la-city-council-proposal-would-send-john-letters-to-owners-of-cars-in-prostitution-areas.
“I don’t doubt that having”: Author’s interview with Mike Katz-Lacabe, July 10, 2017.
“I would feel safer”: Author’s interview with Andrew Frey, July 15, 2017.
Vigilant Solutions, a company: Cyrus Farivar, “Private Firms Sue Arkansas for Right to Collect License Plate Reader Data,” Ars Technica, June 11, 2014. Available at: http://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2014/06/private-firms-sue-arkansas-for-right-to-collect-license-plate-reader-data/.
“The camera affiliates”: Declaration of Todd Hodnett, DRN v. Beebe, 4:14-cv-00327 (2014). Available at: https://www.documentcloud.org/documents/1679018-229019843-drn-and-vigilant-v-beebe-and-mcdaniel.html.
In addition, the parent: “Whose LPR Data Is It Anyway? Vigilant Solutions Reinforces Agency Data Ownership and Offers to Migrate LPR Data at No Charge,” Vigilant Solutions Press Release, 2016. Available at: https://www.bizjournals.com/sanfrancisco/prnewswire/press_releases/California/2016/10/14/DA17512.
Vigilant uses the data: Vigilant Solutions did not make any executives available for an interview with the author.
Access to Vigilant’s database: “LEARN Hosted Server User Agreement July 2017,” Vigilant Solutions, 2017. Available at: https://www.documentcloud.org/documents/3892602-LEARN-Hosted-Server-User-Agreement-July-2017.html#document/p3/a362163.
“Woman’s Life Saved”: “Woman’s Life Saved Using Vigilant Solutions’ License Plate Recognition (LPR) Data,” Officer Press Release, 2013. Available at: http://www.officer.com/press_release/10939925/womans-life-saved-using-vigilant-solutions-license-plate-recognition-lpr-data.
Another proclaims: “Survey: License Plate Recognition Is a Valuable, Well-Regulated Technology,” Officer Press Release, 2013. Available at: http://www.officer.com/press_release/11079856/survey-license-plate-recognition-is-a-valuable-well-regulated-technology.
One notable example came: “SB-893 Automated License Plate Recognition Systems: Use of Data,” Bill Status, California Legislative Information, 2017. Available at: http://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/billStatusClient.xhtml?bill_id=201320140SB893.
“Law enforcement will still”: “Hill Introduces Bill to Prohibit the Sale of Information Gathered by License Plate Readers,” Senator Jerry Hill, January 10, 2014. Available at: http://sd13.senate.ca.gov/news/2014-01-10-hill-introduces-bill-prohibit-sale-information-gathered-license-plate-readers.
In April 2014, Vigilant: B. Shockley, “California Public Opinion Favors License Plate Readers,” Vigilant Solutions, 2014. Available at: https://www.vigilantsolutions.com/california-public-opinion-favors-license-plate-reader-technology-zogby-poll/.
However, under scrutiny: Joe Silver and Cyrus Farivar, “License Plate Rea
der Firm Releases Dubious Poll to Show Public Support,” Ars Technica, May 2, 2014. Available at: https://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2014/05/license-plate-reader-firm-releases-dubious-poll-to-show-public-support/.
Later that year, however: “Automatic License Plate Recognition,” openALPR, 2017. Available at: http://www.openalpr.com/.
“I would love to”: Author’s interview with Mike Katz-Lacabe, July 10, 2017.
However, LPRs: Cyrus Farivar, “ ‘What Are You Doing in My F?!@#g House?’—A Behind-the-Lens Look at Body Cameras,” Ars Technica, January 5, 2016. Available at: https://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2016/01/what-are-you-doing-in-my-fg-house-a-behind-the-lens-look-at-body-cameras.
In May 2014, in Katz-Lacabe’s: “File #: 14-002,” City of San Leandro, 2014. Available at: https://sanleandro.legistar.com/LegislationDetail.aspx?ID=1739213&GUID=D1CA7A9C-4758-4BCB-AB16-6D772DB1F700&FullText=1.
Less than three months: Megan Geuss, “Obama Wants to Buy 50,000 Body Cams for Police, Monitor Military Gear Handouts,” Ars Technica, December 1, 2014. Available at: http://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2014/12/obama-wants-to-buy-50000-body-cams-for-police-monitor-military-gear-handouts/.
Many agencies, like the: “Fact Sheet: Strengthening Community Policing,” White House Press Release, December 1, 2014. Available at: https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2014/12/01/fact-sheet-strengthening-community-policing.
“There’s been a lot of talk”: Wesley Bruer, “Obama Warns Cop Body Cameras Are No ‘Panacea,’ ” CNNPolitics, March 2, 2015. Available at: http://www.cnn.com/2015/03/02/politics/obama-police-body-camera-report/index.html.
In 2013, the city paid out $80,000: Henry K. Lee, “80K Settlement in Police Struggle Death.” San Francisco Chronicle, December 17, 2013. Available at: http://www.sfgate.com/crime/article/80K-settlement-in-police-struggle-death-5071980.php.
In an even stranger incident: Amy Sylvestri, “City Settles in Cops Targeting Gays Lawsuit,” San Leandro Times, October 31, 2013. Available at: https://web.archive.org/web/20160309205534/http://ebpublishing.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=6894%3Acity-settles-in-cops-targeting-gays-lawsuit-&catid=50%3Asan-leandro-news&Itemid=131.
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