Jazz: A Short History
Page 6
• Harmony: the vertical ‘height’ of the chord was extended upward, creating a demand to ‘hear’ this extension simultaneously - as a vertical construct rather that a successive linear one. A development of polyharmony as two streams of harmony played against each other - almost as single strands of melody in counterpoint. Different chord constructs other than the superimposed third - chords constructed in fourths, fifths, and seconds [clusters]. An interest in dissonance rather than resolution led to tone combinations of unprecedented complexity - a reflection of the heightened tension and drive of contemporary life.
• Tonality: Free use of all twelve tones of the scale - still a functional harmony but one which expands the boarders of tonal space - blurring the distinction of Major and Minor. An almost revision to earlier musical organizations such as the medieval church modes, use of non-western scales based on other intervals than the half step, and the use of artificial scale constructs.
• Rhythm: A revolt against standard meters which in turn spurred exploration of less symmetrical patterns in favor of the unexpected - a reflection of the hectic rhythms of modern society, city life, and the machine. A drawing from rhythmic conceptions outside of European music - ‘primitive’ rhythms of Stravinsky and Bartok, the syncopations of Jazz, free prose rhythms of Gregorian Chant, supple [no defining strong beat] rhythms of the medieval motet and the renaissance madrigal, development of national schools prized for their ‘off beat’ qualities. New rhythmical devices developed: Avoidance of the four measure phrase, non symmetrical meters of 5/4,7/4,9/4 - divided in various combinations, multiple meters in compositions with free movement between them, and the bar line lost its power as the arbiter of musical flow.
• Texture: Broke up the thick chordal textures of the previous period, a revival of counterpoint, linear melody, and transparent texture. The reconstruction of contrapuntal values is one of the prime achievements of the modern age - 20th Century composers use dissonant intervals to separate the lines and make them stand out against one another. It restored the balance between vertical and horizontal elements in the music.
• Form: Embraced the Classical conception of a form based on purely musical elements but with a movement away from clear cut symmetry - irregular phrases, repetition [basic principle of form] is disguised, varied, spaced in irregular intervals and unexpected places [a Dynamic Symmetry instead of Equal Symmetry - exact repetition]. It was a true adaption of established forms to the modern age.
The changes listed are a brief description of the many changes brought about in Contemporary Western Concert music. They do not constitute one style but are a statement of the many influences and directions within the genre. There would no longer be one dominating style - but rather many off shoots loosely labeled 20th Century Concert Music. Jazz in sharing these changes would also follow this pattern - many experiments and musical directions constituting not one dominant style but many directions of exploration and influence. What is common and universal are the demands on the listener as these trends redefined or abandoned long developing musical landmarks. The listener had to actively study and assimilate the new landmarks to make sense of the new music - it was a new language.
14 Which Way Now?
One on the consistent and fundamental aspects of the Jazz Genre was its basis in utilizing preexisting material and styles - it was the distinctive manner of performance which identified the particular jazz style. This nature of this material, in many ways, defined the particular jazz style: spirituals, hymns, marches, blues, dance tunes, popular songs [to name a few]. The general characteristics were a melody oriented music, a distillation of 19th Century European Music, and to varying degrees a reflection of middle-class American musical taste. Jazz began with this fundamental characteristic and evolved within its strictures until the 1960’s. With this new generation, the music underwent a very fundamental change - the search for new expressiveness and a vocabulary to address modern life and culture broke the bounds imposed by a use of preexisting material. Jazz which previously had been defined by this material now was to be defined by the new, the evolutionary, and the exploratory.
The History of Jazz has been relatively neat and concise in its course. One major effect of the change would be a splintering of current directions - producing many identifiable and concurrent ‘schools’. The History was no longer neat with clearly defined styles and time lines. Because of the many directions jazz took in the 1960’s, it would be beneficial to summarize the different style characteristics of the preceding eras - if just to provide a reference for what was to develop:
NEW ORLEANS DIXIELAND [1910 - 1925]
• RHYTHMIC PULSE was Flat 4
• FRONT LINE consisting of Cornet [melody], Clarinet [obbligato of smaller note values], Trombone [counter melody]
• RHYTHM SECTION of Tuba, Banjo, Drums
• PERFORMANCE STYLE was group improvisation above a triadic harmonic underpinning
• TEXTURE was polyphonic
• IMPROVISATION was a melodic paraphrasing of the original melody - Chorus’ were embellishments of the original theme in a ‘theme and variation’ format; the Break was only true improvisational solo but usually no more than a brief connecting link between group solo passages
CHICAGO DIXIELAND [1920 - 1928]
• RHYTHMIC PULSE was an accented 4 [‘2 beat’] to accommodate a new function as dance music
• FRONT LINE was similar to NOD but with addition of Sax and Trumpet
• RHYTHM SECTION included String Bass, Piano, and Guitar
• PERFORMANCE STYLE was still group improvisation
• TEXTURE was polyphonic
• IMPROVISATION began to stress individual soloist, utilized harmonic variation based on chord structure, and a greater emphasis on individual virtuosity
SWING [1935 - 1945]
• RHYTHMIC PULSE was accented 2 amp; 4
• FRONT LINE was developed into large sections of reed and brass
• RHYTHM SECTION of Bass, Drums, Piano, and Guitar
• PERFORMANCE STYLE was a large group written arrangement with ‘open’ solo sections - arranger became a central figure; stress on clean and precise sound ideal
• TEXTURE was homophonic - a vertically conceived ensemble sound contrasting the tone qualities of reeds and brass
• IMPROVISATION still greater emphasis on the individual soloist but within the confines of the Section and the Arrangement
BOP [1945 - 1950]
• RHYTHMIC PULSE was an accented 2 amp; 4 but now freed from the confines of providing a dance music function
• FRONT LINE returned to a smaller ensemble classically a Trumpet and Sax - but some larger groupings in this style
• RHYTHM SECTION of Piano, Bass, Drums, with Guitar achieving solo instrument status. Redefined functions with the Bass and HiHat holding down pulse definition
• PERFORMANCE STYLE was Head/Solo/Head with the soloist the central figure
• TEXTURE was homophonic - a horizontally conceived solo based on the underlying harmonic structure
• IMPROVISATION was completely soloist oriented with multiple chorus’ the rule rather than the exception and virtuosity a major element
COOL [1950 - 1955]
• RHYTHMIC PULSE was accented 2 amp; 4 but understated and implied
• FRONT LINE - small groups with larger groups utilizing ‘unusual’ instrumental colors
• RHYTHM SECTION was handled with understatement with pianoless or drummer less ensembles appearing
• PERFORMANCE STYLE was Head/Solo/Head but with seamless and interwoven entrances - emphasis on the rational and ‘classical’
• TEXTURE was almost a return to the polyphony of Dixieland
• IMPROVISATION completely soloist oriented
HARD BOP [1955 - 1960]
• RHYTHMIC PULSE was accented 2 amp; 4 hard, driving, and emotional
• FRONT LINE - small groups
• RHYTHM SECTION of
Piano, Bass, Drums
• PERFORMANCE STYLE was Head/Solo/Head with the emphasis on the emotional with R amp;B and Gospel influences. A disregard for the ‘European’ mannerisms of the Cool School
• TEXTURE was homophonic
• IMPROVISATION completely soloist oriented
This history chronicles a steady evolution with the revolutionary a reaction or rejection of past practice. Yes, there were some very fundamental changes which occurred - but these changes did not reinvent or reject the musical elements of Jazz. Each of the styles maintained a link with these musical elements varying only in emphasis - the foundations remained common and firm only the structures built upon the foundations were varied. The 60’s were to work on the very foundations of the music.
This is not to say that all was changed - actually two main trends emerged. The era continued with the evolutionary pattern: an exploration within the limitations of already existing styles and their accompanying performance characteristics, a maintenance of functional harmony, a division of labor between the Rhythm Section and the Front Line, and a continuing and reoccurring accented pulse. The era was also characterized by a disintegration of the very structural background of Jazz: an intentional assault on the rigidity of the historical framework, a replacement by a new system of order to fill the vacancy left by the assault on this historical framework [first evident in the area of harmony - melody, rhythm, meter, and structure to soon follow with a return to group improvisation based on new conceptions], a growing interest in ‘world music’, a new attempt to synthesize Jazz and the music of the European Fine Art Tradition, revitalization of the large group, and continued incorporation of ‘Popular Music’ into the Jazz Style - but a very different ‘Pop Music’.
Culturally, the world of the 60’s epitomized these two main trends - the evolutionary based on previous values and practice and the something beyond revolutionary - a rejection of the the past as irrelevant to the ‘Now’ and a search for behaviors, vocabulary, beliefs, and systems to order and make comprehendible a world of rapidly - almost daily - newness. It was a search for new rules in a world where the rules had suddenly changed - or was rapid, accelerated, and constant change the only rule?
Jazz was and is a part of the cultural environment - it could do nothing but reflect this environment and express the emotions of those experiencing this cultural, social, and musical reinvention.
15 The Age of Aquarius
The historical documentation of Jazz is nothing more than a chronicle of the stylistic changes that occurred within the music. These changes were adaptions of the music to the cultural and social forces that occurred within the environment - this has been the main content of these articles. One of the fundamental characteristics to be changed [with Bop] was Jazz’s functional shift from Dance Music to Art Music. This resulted in the music responding to ‘Art’ driven forces rather than the ‘pop’ market. A immediate result was that change increasingly originated with the artists involved - and their need to adapt the music’s language to new artistic demands.
By the end of ‘50’s, two major engines of stylistic change came to the forefront - a dramatic increase in the technical skill of individual soloists and the increased complexity of compositions accepted or modified for the jazz idiom. The technical side of this put pressure on the music to provide improvisational ‘space’ to showcase this technique but it also influenced the next generation of players - which not only built upon this technical evolution but then expanded upon it. The complexity of the compositions are a result of this pressure - to provide a musical vehicle equal to the artist’s technique - but also a contributing factor for future change. While the respect for preexisting material remained a definitive factor; substantial changes took place with the enrichment of the harmonic content and the shift from an eight note to a sixteenth note pulse subdivision. This is the foundation for Jazz in the ‘60’s - an ‘art’ driven music, an enriched harmonic vocabulary, and a redefined underling pulse.
The ‘60’s took two paths. The first was a continuation of the evolutionary pattern of using preexisting styles and patterns: a maintenance of functional harmony, exploration within the limitations of these styles and performance practices, a division of labor between the rhythm section and ‘front line’, and a regular and reoccurring accented pulse. The second was a disintegration of the structural background of the music: an intentional assault on the rigidity of the historical framework, a replacement by a new system of order to fill the vacancy left by the assault on this framework, a growing interest in other musical systems, a new attempt to synthesize Jazz and the Contemporary European Fine Art Tradition [already 50 years into its own revolution]. These two paths provided opportunity for a stylistic diversity unprecedented in the history of Jazz. Again, the evolutionary and revolutionary appear, not as a matter of emphasis, but as two simultaneous occurrences - it is the revolutionary which is most obviously revealed in the elements of Jazz.
THE SEARCH FOR COLOR
Jazz, for its entire history, was realized on a relatively small number of European instruments [Trumpet, Trombone, Clarinet, Saxophones, Piano, Tuba, String Bass, Guitar, Drums, and Voice] with secondary additions of Violin, Flute, Vibes, and French Horn. Variety of color was achieved by contrasting instrumental families and use of tonal effects exclusive to Jazz performance practice. The emphasis on color was most obvious in the Cool School of the ‘50’s - the ‘60’s gave this element even more consideration.
Now, an unprecedented assortment of instrumental resources and coloristic effects enter into the music:
Exotic instruments from non western cultures, a renewal of African concepts of tone production and vocal practice, an acceptance of all European instruments, practices from the Fine Art Avant-guarde, Electronic or electrically modified instruments, and new orchestral combinations. This exploration of ‘outside’ coloristic resources was also a reflection/result of current social forces: musicians began to take new musical interest in the ‘Third World’ of Africa, Asia, and South America, the rise of Islam in the Afro-American community ignited an interest in the music of North Africa and Arabia, and a general interest in the mysticism of Asia - all opened an easy access to cross-cultural musical influences.
SOURCES::AFRICA
True ‘folk’ instruments were introduced into the jazz performance - reed and wooden flutes, whistles, thumb piano, animal horns, and a variety of bells, rattles, and drums. While usually employed in an accompanying role, they added atmosphere and spice in improvisational support. Accompanying this was a renewed interest in the concepts of African Tone Quality - especially those which parallel the African Tonal Languages.
Complex rhythmic textures were also adapted: the use of multiple drummers, layering of polyrhythmic and polymetric activity, and an increase of rhythmic density. The development of ‘melodic’ drumming
[as a consideration of pitch in drumming practice] was influenced by the drum languages of Africa.
A movement toward collective expression and improvisation broke down the division of labor between the ‘front line’ and the rhythm section. Now everyone was responsible for ‘keeping the time’ - not just the drummer. This had the effect of not only allowing ‘melodic’ drumming but liberated the entire rhythm section - allowing the section to expand their role beyond time keeping.
The search for knowledge of African music sparked a number of visits by American Jazz musicians.
They went not only as a pilgrimage, but to learn and experience first hand the musics of Africa - Randy Weston come notably to mind.
SOURCES::ASIA
Interest in the Classical music of India and other Asian cultures introduced Oriental flutes and percussion, the Japanese Koto, and Indian instruments to Jazz. The Indian influence - focused on the Raga - brought Ravi Shankar to the United States and initiated experiments seeking a common ground between the musical cultures - Don Ellis formed the Hindustani Jazz Sextet for this express purpose.
SOURCES::SOUTH AMERICA
The emergence of the Bossa Nova - a uniquely Brazilian style - generated interest in Afro-Brazilian percussion and rhythmic practices. It parallels the Afro-Cuban focus of the late “40’s and initiated a mutual exchange with Brazilian musicians - Gilberto, Jobim, and Bonfa among many others.
SOURCES:: CONTEMPORARY FINE ART MUSIC
Spurred by the Third Stream proponents, many more European instruments were accepted into the Jazz environment - the entire Orchestral percussion family, Soprano Sax, Flugelhorn, all ranges of flutes, Violin, Tuba, Cello, Oboe, Bassoon, and Clarinet were added or reappeared. Some of these instruments
[as with the Indian instruments] were aided by the advancements in amplification. This was also accompanied by the expansion of the Sound Vocabulary of these instruments: an expanded range in the wind instruments to the very extremes of the possible, unconventional means of tone production
[manual manipulation of the Piano strings, Harmonic and ‘false’ tone production, and experiments in the use of voice and instrumental combinations].
SOURCES::ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTS
Electric amplification of instruments and voice was not new - the Amplified Guitar and the Microphone were around for considerable time. What did occur was the advances in electronics made it relatively cheap, reliable, and applicable to any instrument - but more important, direct electronic manipulation of the sound envelope and harmonic organization of the tone became possible. A new sound source had now entered into the music and with it new colors.