Primates and Philosophers_How Morality Evolved
Page 17
5 The idea of a rebellion against base motives, or even against our own genes (Dawkins 1976), is a secular version of the old Christian notion of denial of the flesh. Gray (2002) discusses how religious positions have unconsciously slipped into liberal and scientific discourse.
References
Adolphs, R., L. Cahill, R. Schul, and R. Babinsky. 1997. Impaired declarative memory for emotional material following bilateral amygdala damage in humans. Learning & Memory, 4: 291–300.
Adolphs, R., H. Damasio, D. Tranel, G. Cooper, and A. R. Damasio. 2000. A role for somatosensory cortices in the visual recognition of emotion as revealed by three-dimensional lesion mapping. Journal of Neuroscience 20: 2683–2690.
Adolphs, R., D. Tranel, H. Damasio, and A. R. Damasio. 1994. Impaired recognition of emotion in facial expressions following bilateral damage to the human amygdala. Nature 372: 669–672.
Alexander, R. A. 1987. The Biology of Moral Systems. New York: Aldine de Gruyter.
Arnhart, L. 1998. Darwinian Natural Right: The Biological Ethics of Human Nature. Albany, NY: SUNY Press.
_____. 1999. E. O. Wilson has more in common with Thomas Aquinas than he realizes. Christianity Today International 5 (6): 36.
Aureli, F., M. Cords, and C. P. van Schaik. 2002. Conflict resolution following aggression in gregarious animals: A predictive framework. Animal Behaviour 64: 325–343.
Aureli, F., R. Cozzolino, C. Cordischi, and S. Scucchi. 1992. Kinoriented redirection among Japanese macaques: An expression of a revenge system? Animal Behaviour 44: 283–291.
Aureli, F., and F.B.M. de Waal. 2000. Natural Conflict Resolution. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Axelrod, R., and W. D. Hamilton. 1981. The evolution of cooperation. Science 211: 1390–1396.
Badcock, C. R. 1986. The Problem of Altruism: Freudian-Darwinian Solutions. Oxford: Blackwell.
Bargh, J. A., and T. L. Chartrand. 1999. The Unbearable Automaticity of Being. American Psychologist 54: 462–479.
Baron-Cohen, S. 2000. Theory of Mind and autism: A fifteen year review. In Understanding Other Minds, ed. S. Baron-Cohen, H. Tager-Flusberg, and D. J. Cohen, pp. 3–20. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
_____.2003. The Essential Difference. New York: BasicBooks.
_____. 2004. Sex differences in social development: Lessons from autism. In Social and Moral Development: Emerging Evidence on the Toddler Years, ed. L. A. Leavitt and D.M.B. Hall, pp. 125–141. Johnson & Johnson Pediatric Institute.
Batson, C. D. 1990. How social an animal? The human capacity for caring. American Psychologist 45: 336–346.
Batson, C.D., J. Fultz, and P. A. Schoenrade. 1987. Distress and empathy: Two qualitatively distinct vicarious emotions with different motivational consequences. Journal of Personality 55: 19–39.
Berreby, D. 2005. Us and Them: Understanding Your Tribal Mind. New York: Little Brown.
Bischof-Kohler, D. 1988. Šber den Zusammenhang von Empathie und der Fähigkeit sich im Spiegel zu erkennen. Schweizerische Zeitschrift für Psychologie 47: 147–159.
Boehm, C. 1994, Pacifying interventions at Arnhem Zoo and Gombe. In Chimpanzee Cultures, ed. R. W. Wrangham, W. C. McGrew, F.B.M. de Waal, and P. G. Heltne, pp. 211–226. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
_____. 1999. Hierarchy in the Forest: The Evolution of Egalitarian Behavior. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Bonnie, K. E., and F.B.M. de Waal. 2004. Primate social reciprocity and the origin of gratitude. In The Psychology of Gratitude, ed. R. A. Emmons and M. E. McCullough, pp. 213–229. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Bowlby, J. 1958. The nature of the child’s tie to his mother. International Journal of Psycho-Analysis 39: 350–373.
Bräuer, J., Call, J., and Tomasello, M. 2005. All great ape species follow gaze to distant locations and around barriers. Journal of Comparative Psychology 119: 145–154.
Brosnan, S. F., and F.B.M. de Waal. 2003. Monkeys reject unequal pay. Nature 425: 297–299.
Brosnan, S. F., Schiff, H., and de Waal, F.B.M. 2005. Tolerance for inequity increases with social closeness in chimpanzees. Proceedings of the Royal Society B 272: 253–258.
Burghardt, G. M. 1985. Animal awareness: Current perceptions and historical perspective. American Psychologist 40: 905–919.
Byrne, R. W., and A. Whiten. 1988. Machiavellian Intelligence: Social Expertise and the Evolution of Intellect in Monkeys, Apes, and Humans. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Caldwell, M. C., and D. K. Caldwell. 1966. Epimeletic (Care-Giving) behavior in cetacea. In Whales, Dolphins, and Porpoises, ed. K. S. Norris, pp. 755–789. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Carr, L., M. Iacoboni, M.-C. Dubeau, J. C. Mazziotta, and G. L. Lenzi. 2003. Neural mechanisms of empathy in humans: A relay from neural systems for imitation to limbic areas. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 100: 5497–5502.
Cenami Spada, E. 1997. Amorphism, mechanomorphism, and anthropomorphism. Anthropomorphism, Anecdotes, and Animals, ed. R. Mitchell, N. Thompson, and L. Miles, pp. 37–49. Albany, NY: SUNY Press.
Cheney, D. L., and R. M. Seyfarth. 1990. How Monkeys See the World: Inside the Mind of Another Species. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Church, R. M. 1959. Emotional reactions of rats to the pain of others. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 52: 132–134.
Cohen, S., W. J. Doyle, D. P. Skoner, B. S. Rabin, and J. M. Gwaltney. 1997. Social ties and susceptibility to the Common Cold. Journal of the American Medical Association 277: 1940–1944.
Connor, R. C., and K. S. Norris. 1982. Are dolphins reciprocal altruists? American Naturalist 119: 358–372.
Damasio, A. 1994. Descartes’ Error: Emotion, Reason, and the Human Brain. New York: Putnam.
Darwin, C. 1982 [1871]. The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Dawkins, R. 1976. The Selfish Gene. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
_____. 1996. [No title.] Times Literary Supplement. November 29: 13.
_____. 2003. A Devil’s Chaplain: Reflections on Hope, Lies, Science, and Love. New York: Houghton Mifflin.
de Gelder, B., J. Snyder, D. Greve, G. Gerard, and N. Hadjikhani. 2004. Fear fosters flight: A mechanism for fear contagion when perceiving emotion expressed by a whole body. Proceedings from the National Academy of Sciences 101: 16701–16706.
de Waal, F.B.M. 1984. Sex-differences in the formation of coalitions among chimpanzees. Ethology & Sociobiology 5: 239–255.
_____. 1989a. Food sharing and reciprocal obligations among chimpanzees. Journal of Human Evolution 18: 433–459.
_____. 1989b. Peacemaking among Primates. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
_____. 1991. Complementary methods and convergent evidence in the study of primate social cognition. Behaviour 118: 297–320.
_____. 1996. Good Natured: The Origins of Right and Wrong in Humans and Other Animals. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
_____. 1997a. Bonobo: The Forgotten Ape. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
_____. 1997b. The Chimpanzee’s Service Economy: Food for Grooming. Evolution & Human Behavior 18: 375–386.
_____. 1998 [1982]. Chimpanzee Politics: Power and Sex among Apes. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.
_____. 1999. Anthropomorphism and anthropodenial: Consistency in our thinking about humans and other animals. Philosophical Topics 27: 255–280.
_____. 2000. Primates—a natural heritage of conflict resolution.
Science 289: 586–590.
———. 2003. On the possibility of animal empathy. In Feelings and Emotions: The Amsterdam Symposium, ed. T. Manstead, N. Frijda, and A. Fischer, pp. 379–399. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
de Waal, F.B.M. 2005. How animals do business. Scientific American 292(4): 72–79.
_____. 2005. Our Inner Ape. New York: Riverhead.
de Waal, F.B.M., and F. Aureli. 1996. Consolation, reconciliatio
n, and a possible cognitive difference between macaque and chimpanzee. In Reaching into Thought: The Minds of the Great Apes, ed. A. E. Russon, K. A. Bard, and S. T. Parker, pp. 80–110. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
de Waal, F.B.M., and L. M. Luttrell. 1988. Mechanisms of social reciprocity in three primate species: Symmetrical relationship characteristics or cognition? Ethology & Sociobiology 9:101–118.
de Waal, F.B.M., and S. F. Brosnan. 2006. Simple and complex reciprocity in primates. In Cooperation in Primates and Humans: Mechanisms and Evolution, ed. P. M. Kappeler and C. P. van Schaik, pp. 85–105. Berlin: Springer.
de Waal, F.B.M., and A. van Roosmalen. 1979. Reconciliation and consolation among chimpanzees. Behavioral Ecology & Sociobiology 5: 55–66.
Decety, J., and T. Chaminade 2003a. Neural correlates of feeling sympathy. Neuropsychologia 41: 127–138.
_____. 2003b. When the self represents the other: A new cognitive neuroscience view on psychological identification. Consciousness and Cognition 12: 577–596.
Desmond, A. 1994. Huxley: From Devil’s Disciple to Evolution’s High Priest. New York: Perseus.
Dewey, J. 1993 [1898]. Evolution and ethics. Reprinted in Evolutionary Ethics, ed. M. H. Nitecki and D. V. Nitecki, pp. 95–110. Albany: State University of New York Press.
di Pellegrino, G., L. Fadiga, L. Fogassi, V. Gallese, and G. Rizzolatti. 1992. Understanding motor events: A neurophysiological study. Experimental Brain Research 91: 176–180.
Dimberg, U. 1982. Facial reactions to facial expressions. Psychophysiology 19: 643–647.
_____. 1990. Facial electromyographic reactions and autonomic activity to auditory stimuli. Biological Psychology 31: 137–147.
Dimberg, U., M. Thunberg, and K. Elmehed. 2000. Unconscious facial reactions to emotional facial expressions. Psychological Science 11: 86–89.
Dugatkin, L. A. 1997. Cooperation among Animals: An Evolutionary Perspective. New York: Oxford University Press.
Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 1.1974 [1971]. Love and Hate. New York: Schocken Books.
Eisenberg, N. 2000. Empathy and Sympathy. In Handbook of Emotion, ed. M. Lewis and J. M. Haviland-Jones, pp. 677–691. 2nd ed. New York: Guilford Press.
Eisenberg, N., and J. Strayer. 1987. Empathy and Its Development. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Ekman, P. 1982. Emotion in the Human Face. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Fehr, E., and K. M. Schmidt. 1999. A theory of fairness, competition, and cooperation. Quarterly Journal of Economics 114: 817–868.
Feistner, A.T.C., and W. C. McGrew. 1989. Food-sharing in primates: A critical review. In Perspectives in Primate Biology, ed. P. K. Seth and S. Seth, vol. 3, pp. 21–36. New Delhi: Today & Tomorrow’s Printers and Publishers.
Flack, J. C., and F.B.M. de Waal. 2000. “Any animal whatever”: Darwinian building blocks of morality in monkeys and apes. Journal of Consciousness Studies 7: 1–29.
Flack, J. C., M. Girvan, F.B.M. de Waal, and D. C. Krakauer. 2006. Policing stabilizes construction of social niches in primates. Nature 439: 426–429.
Flack, J. C., L. A. Jeannotte, and F.B.M. de Waal. 2004. Play signaling and the perception of social rules by juvenile chimpanzees. Journal of Comparative Psychology 118: 149–159.
Flack, J. C., D. C. Krakauer, and F.B.M. de Waal. 2005. Robustness mechanisms in primate societies: A perturbation study. Proceedings of the Royal Society London B 272: 1091–1099.
Frank, R. H. 1988. Passions within Reason: The Strategic Role of the Emotions. New York: Norton.
Freud, S. 1962 [1913]. Totem and Taboo. New York: Norton.
_____. 1961 [1930]. Civilization and its Discontents. New York: Norton.
Gagneux, P., J. J. Moore, and A. Varki. 2005. The ethics of research on great apes. Nature 437: 27–29.
Gallese, V. 2001. The “shared manifold” hypothesis: From mirror neurons to empathy. In Between Ourselves: Second-Person Issues in the Study of Consciousness, ed. E. Thompson, pp. 33–50. Thorverton, UK: Imprint Academic.
Gallup, G. G. 1982. Self-awareness and the emergence of mind in primates. American Journal of Primatology 2: 237–248.
Gauthier, D. 1986. Morals by Agreement. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Ghiselin, M. 1974. The Economy of Nature and the Evolution of Sex. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Gintis, H., S. Bowles, R. Boyd, and E. Fehr. 2005. Moral Sentiments and Material Interests. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Goodall, J. 1990. Through a Window: My Thirty Years with the Chimpanzees of Gombe. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Gould, S. J. 1980. So cleverly kind an animal. In Ever Since Darwin, pp. 260–267. Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin.
Gray, J.2002. Straw Dogs: Thoughts on Humans and Other Animals. London: Granta.
Greene, J. 2005. Emotion and cognition in moral judgment: Evidence from neuroimaging. In Neurobiology of Human Values, ed. J.-P. Changeux, A. R. Damasio, W. Singer, and Y. Christen, pp. 57–66. Berlin: Springer.
Greene, J., and J. Haidt. 2002. How (and where) does moral judgement work? Trends in Cognitive Sciences 16: 517–523.
Greenspan, S. I., and S. G. Shanker. 2004. The First Idea. Cambridge, MA: Da Capo Press.
Haidt, J. 2001. The emotional dog and its rational tail: A social intuitionist approach to moral judgment. Psychological Review 108:814–834.
Hammock, E.A.D., and L. J. Young. 2005. Microsatellite instability generates diversity in brain and sociobehavioral traits. Science 308: 1630–1634.
Harcourt, A. H., and F.B.M. de Waal. 1992. Coalitions and Alliances in Humans and Other Animals. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Hardin, G. 1982. Discriminating altruisms. Zygon 17: 163–186.
Hare, B., J. Call, and M. Tomasello. 2001. Do chimpanzees know what conspecifics know? Animal Behaviour 61, 139–151.
Hare, B., J. Call, and M. Tomasello. In press. Chimpanzees deceive a human competitor by hiding. Cognition.
Hare, B., and M. Tomasello. 2004. Chimpanzees are more skilful in competitive than in cooperative cognitive tasks. Animal Behaviour 68: 571–581.
Harlow, H. F., and M. K. Harlow. 1965. The affectional systems. In Behavior of Nonhuman Primates, ed. A. M. Schrier, H. F. Harlow, and F. Stollnitz, pp. 287–334. New York: Acad. Press.
Hatfield, E., J. T. Cacioppo, and R. L. Rapson. 1993. Emotional Contagion. Current Directions in Psychological Science 2: 96–99.
Hauser, M. D. 2000. Wild Minds: What Animals Really Think. New York: Holt.
Hebb, D. O. 1946. Emotion in man and animal: An analysis of the intuitive processes of recognition. Psychological Review 53: 88–106.
Hediger, H. 1955. Studies in the Psychology and Behaviour of Animals in Zoos and Circuses. London: Buttersworth.
Hirata, S. 2006. Tactical deception and understanding of others in chimpanzees. In Cognitive Development in Chimpanzees, ed. T. Matsuzawa, M. Tomanaga, and M. Tanaka, pp. 265–276. Tokyo: Springer Verlag.
Hirschleifer, J. 1987. In The Latest on the Best: Essays in Evolution and Optimality, ed. J. Dupre, pp. 307–326. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Hobbes, T. 1991 [1651]. Leviathan. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Hoffman, M. L. 1975. Developmental synthesis of affect and cognition and its implications for altruistic motivation. Developmental Psychology 11: 607–622.
_____. 1982. Affect and moral development. New Directions for Child Development 16: 83–103.
Hornblow, A. R. 1980. The study of empathy. New Zealand Psychologist 9: 19–28.
Hume, D. 1985 [1739]. A Treatise of Human Nature. Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin.
Humphrey, N. 1978. Nature’s psychologists. New Scientist 29: 900–904.
Huxley, T. H. 1989 [1894]. Evolution and Ethics. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Joyce, R. 2006. The Evolution of Morality. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Kagan, J. 2000. Human morality is distinctive. Journal of Consciousness Studies 7: 46–48.
Kahneman, D., and C. R. Sunstein. 2005. C
ognitive psychology and moral intuitions. In Neurobiology of Human Values, ed. J.-P. Changeux, A. R. Damasio, W. Singer, and Y. Christen, pp. 91–105. Berlin: Springer.
Katz, L. D. 2000. Evolutionary Origins of Morality: Cross-Disciplinary Perspectives. Exeter, UK: Imprint Academic.
Kennedy, J. S. 1992. The New Anthropomorphism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Killen, M., and L. P. Nucci. 1995. Morality, autonomy and social conflict. In Morality in Everyday Life: Developmental Perspectives, ed. M. Killen and D. Hart, pp. 52–86. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Kropotkin, P. 1972 [1902]. Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution. New York: New York University Press.
Kuroshima, H., K. Fujita, I. Adachi, K. Iwata, and A. Fuyuki. 2003. A capuchin monkey (Cebus apella) recognizes when people do and do not know the location of food. Animal Cognition 6: 283–291.
Ladygina-Kohts, N. N. 2002 [1935]. Infant Chimpanzee and Human Child: A Classic 1935 Comparative Study of Ape Emotions and Intelligence. Ed. F.B.M. de Waal. New York: Oxford University Press.
Lipps, T. 1903. Einfühlung, innere Nachahmung und Organempfindung. Archiv für die gesamte Psychologie 1: 465–519.
Levenson, R. W., and A. M. Reuf. 1992. Empathy: A physiological substrate. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 63: 234–246.
Lorenz, K. 1974. Civilized Man’s Eight Deadly Sins. London: Methuen.
Macintyre, A. 1999. Dependent Rational Animals: Why Human Beings Need the Virtues. Chicago: Open Court.
MacLean, P. D. 1985. Brain evolution relating to family, play, and the separation call. Archives of General Psychiatry 42: 405–417.