101.M. Howe et al., “Prolonged Dopamine Signaling in Striatum Signals Proximity and Value of Distant Rewards,” Nat 500 (2013): 575; Y. Niv, “Dopamine Ramps Up,” Nat 500 (2013): 533.
102.W. Schultz, “Subjective Neuronal Coding of Reward: Temporal Value Discounting and Risk,” Eur J Nsci 31 (2010): 2124; S. Kobayashi and W. Schultz, “Influence of Reward Delays on Responses of Dopamine Neurons,” J Nsci 28 (2008): 7837; S. Kim et al., “Prefrontal Coding of Temporally Discounted Values During Intertemporal Choice,” Neuron 59 (2008): 161; M. Roesch and C. Olson, “Neuronal Activity in Orbitofrontal Cortex Reflects the Value of Time,” J Neurophysiology 94 (2005): 2457; M. Bermudez and W. Schultz, “Timing in Reward and Decision Processes,” Philosophical Trans of the Royal Soc of London B 369 (2014): 20120468; B. Figner et al., “Lateral Prefrontal Cortex and Self-Control in Intertemporal Choice,” Nat Nsci 13 (2010): 538; K. Jimura et al., “Impulsivity and Self-Control During Intertemporal Decision Making Linked to the Neural Dynamics of Reward Value Representation,” J Nsci 33 (2013): 344; S. McClure et al., “Time Discounting for Primary Rewards,” J Nsci 27, 5796.
103.K. Ballard and B. Knutson, “Dissociable Neural Representations of Future Reward Magnitude and Delay During Temporal Discounting,” Neuroimage 45 (2009): 143.
104.A. Lak et al., “Dopamine Prediction Error Responses Integrate Subjective Value from Different Reward Dimensions,” PNAS 111 (2014): 2343.
105.V. Noreika et al., “Timing Deficits in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): Evidence from Neurocognitive and Neuroimaging Studies,” Neuropsychologia 51 (2013): 235; A. Pine et al., “Dopamine, Time, and Impulsivity in Humans,” J Nsci 30 (2010): 8888; W. Schultz, “Potential Vulnerabilities of Neuronal Reward, Risk, and Decision Mechanisms to Addictive Drugs,” Neuron 69 (2011): 603.
106.G. Brown et al., “Aggression in Humans Correlates with Cerebrospinal Fluid Amine Metabolites,” Psychiatry Res 1 (1979): 131; M. Linnoila et al., “Low Cerebrospinal Fluid 5-Hydroxyindoleacetic Acid Concentration Differentiates Impulsive from Nonimpulsive Violent Behavior,” Life Sci 33 (1983): 2609; P. Stevenson and K. Schildberger, “Mechanisms of Experience Dependent Control of Aggression in Crickets,” Curr Opinion in Neurobiol 23 (2013): 318; P. Fong and A. Ford, “The Biological Effects of Antidepressants on the Molluscs and Crustaceans: A Review,” Aquatic Toxicology 151 (2014): 4.
107.M. Linnoila et al., “Low Cerebrospinal Fluid 5-Hydroxyindoleacetic Acid Concentration Differentiates Impulsive from Nonimpulsive Violent Behavior,” Life Sci 33 (1983): 2609; J. Higley et al., “Excessive Mortality in Young Free-Ranging Male Nonhuman Primates with Low Cerebrospinal Fluid 5-Hydroxyindoleacetic Acid Concentrations,” AGP 53 (1996): 537; M. Åsberg et al., “5-HIAA in the Cerebrospinal Fluid: A Biochemical Suicide Predictor?” AGP 33 (1976): 1193; M. Bortolato et al., “The Role of the Serotonergic System at the Interface of Aggression and Suicide,” Nsci 236 (2013): 160.
108.H. Clarke et al., “Cognitive Inflexibility After Prefrontal Serotonin Depletion,” Sci 304 (2004): 878; R. Wood et al., “Effects of Tryptophan Depletion on the Performance of an Iterated PD Game in Healthy Adults,” Neuropsychopharmacology 1 (2006): 1075.
109.J. Dalley and J. Roiser, “Dopamine, Serotonin and Impulsivity,” Nsci 215 (2012): 42; P. Redgrave and R. Horrell, “Potentiation of Central Reward by Localized Perfusion of Acetylcholine and 5-Hydroxytryptamine,” Nat 262 (1976): 305; A. Harrison and A. Markou, “Serotonergic Manipulations Both Potentiate and Reduce Brain Stimulation Reward in Rats: Involvement of Serotonin-1A Receptors,” JPET 297 (2001): 316.
110.A. Duke, “Revisiting the Serotonin-Aggression Relation in Humans: A Meta-analysis,” Psych Bull 139 (2013): 1148.
111.A. Gopnik, “The New Neuro-Skeptics,” New Yorker, September 9, 2013.
112.C. Bukach et al., “Beyond Faces and Modularity: The Power of an Expertise Framework,” TICS 10 (2006): 159.
Chapter 3: Seconds to Minutes Before
1.Abusive mothering and antibehaviorist results: D. Maestripieri et al., “Neurobiological Characteristics of Rhesus Macaque Abusive Mothers and Their Relation to Social and Maternal Behavior,” Nsci Biobehav Rev 29 (2005): 51; R. Sullivan et al., “Ontogeny of Infant Fear Learning and the Amygdala,” in Cognitive Neuroscience IV, ed. M. Gazzaniga (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2009), 889.
2.Pandas’ voices: B. Charlton et al., “Vocal Discrimination of Potential Mates by Female Giant Pandas (Ailuropoda melanoleuca),” Biol Lett 5 (2009): 597. Women’s voices: G. Bryant and M. Haselton, “Vocal Cues of Ovulation in Human Females,” Biol Lett 5 (2009): 12; Footnote: J. Knight, “When Robots Go Wild,” Nat 434 (2005): 954.
3.Footnote: H. Herzog, Some We Love, Some We Hate, Some We Eat: Why It’s So Hard to Think Straight About Animals (New York: Harper, 2010).
4.Vibrational communication: P. Hill, Vibrational Communication in Animals (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008). Jamming bats: A. Corcoran and W. Conner, “Bats Jamming Bats: Food Competition Through Sonar Interference,” Sci 346 (2014): 745. Tickling rats: J. Panksepp, “Beyond a Joke: From Animal Laughter to Human Joy?” Sci 308 (2005): 62.
5.A review concerning how there is a continuum between subliminal sensory information and information that is sensed but considered to be irrelevant: T. Marteau et al., “Changing Human Behavior to Prevent Disease: The Importance of Targeting Automatic Processes,” Sci 337 (2012): 1492.
6.Potato chips: M. Zampini and C. Spence, “Assessing the Role of Sound in the Perception of Food and Drink,” Chemical Senses 3 (2010): 57. K. Edwards, “The Interplay of Affect and Cognition in Attitude Formation and Change,” JPSP 59 (1990): 212.
7.An excellent review on the subject: J. Kubota et al. “The Neuroscience of Race,” Nat Nsci 15 (2012): 940; for a good review of the entire subject, see: D. Ariely, Predictably Irrational: The Hidden Forces That Shape Our Decisions (New York HarperCollins, 2008).
8.T. Ito and G. J. Urland, “Race and Gender on the Brain: Electrocortical Measures of Attention to the Race and Gender of Multiply Categorizable Individuals,” JPSP 85 (2003): 616. For a good review of how implicit attitudes are studied, see B. Nosek et al., “Implicit Social Cognition: From Measures to Mechanisms,” TICS 15 (2011): 152.
9.A. Olsson et al., “The Role of Social Groups in the Persistence of Learned Fear,” Sci 309 (2005): 785.
10.J. Richeson et al., “An fMRI Investigation of the Impact of Interracial Contact on Executive Function,” Nat Nsci 6 (2003): 1323; K. Knutson et al., “Why Do Interracial Interactions Impair Executive Function? A Resource Depletion Account,” TICS 10 (2007): 915; K. Knutson et al., “Neural Correlates of Automatic Beliefs About Gender and Race,” Human Brain Mapping 28 (2007): 915.
11.N. Kanwisher et al., “The Fusiform Face Area: A Module in Human Extrastriate Cortex Specialized for Face Perception,” J Nsci 17 (1997): 4302; J. Sergent et al., “Functional Neuroanatomy of Face and Object Processing: A Positron Emission Tomography Study,” Brain 115 (1992): 15; A. Golby et al., “Differential Responses in the Fusiform Region to Same-Race and Other-Race Faces,” Nat Nsci 4 (2001): 845; A. J. Hart et al., “Differential Response in the Human Amygdala to Racial Outgroup Versus Ingroup Face Stimuli,” Neuroreport 11 (2000): 2351.
12.K. Shutts and K. Kinzler, “An Ambiguous-Race Illusion in Children’s Face Memory,” Psych Sci 18 (2007): 763; D. Maner et al., “Functional Projection: How Fundamental Social Motives Can Bias Interpersonal Perception,” JPSP 88 (2005): 63; K. Hugenberg and G. Bodenhausen, “Facing Prejudice: Implicit Prejudice and the Perception of Facial Threat,” Psych Sci (2003): 640; J. Van Bavel et al., “The Neural Substrates of In-group Bias: A Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging Investigation,” Psych Sci 19 (2008): 1131; J. Van Bavel and W. Cunningham, “Self-Categorization with a Novel Mixed-Race Group Moderates Automatic Social and Racial Biases,” PSPB 35 (2009): 321.
13.A. Avenanti et al., “Racial Bias
Reduces Empathic Sensorimotor Resonance with Other-Race Pain,” Curr Biol 20 (2010): 1018; V. Mathur et al., “Neural Basis of Extraordinary Empathy and Altruistic Motivation,” Neuroimage 51 (2010): 1468–75.
14.J. Correll et al., “Event-Related Potentials and the Decision to Shoot: The Role of Threat Perception and Cognitive Control,” JESP 42 (2006): 120.
15.J. Eberhardt et al., “See Black: Race, Crime, and Visual Processing,” JPSP 87 (2004): 876; I. Blair et al., “The Influence of Afrocentric Facial Features in Criminal Sentencing,” Psych Sci 15 (2004): 674; M. Brown et al., “The Effects of Eyeglasses and Race on Juror Decisions Involving a Violent Crime,” AMFP 26 (2008): 25.
16.J. LeDoux, “Emotion: Clues from the Brain,” Ann Rev of Psych 46 (1995): 209.
17.T. Ito and G. Urland, “Race and Gender on the Brain: Electrocortical Measures of Attention to the Race and Gender of Multiply Categorizable Individuals,” JPSP 85 (2003): 616; N. Rule et al., “Perceptions of Dominance Following Glimpses of Faces and Bodies,” Perception 41 (2012): 687; C. Zink et al., “Know Your Place: Neural Processing of Social Hierarchy in Humans,” Neuron 58 (2008): 273.
18.T. Tsukiura and R. Cabeza, “Shared Brain Activity for Aesthetic and Moral Judgments: Implications for the Beauty-Is-Good Stereotype,” SCAN 6 (2011): 138.
19.H. Aviezer et al., “Body Cues, Not Facial Expressions, Discriminate Between Intense Positive and Negative Emotions,” Sci 338 (2012); 1225; C. Bobst and J. Lobmaier, “Men’s Preference for the Ovulating Female Is Triggered by Subtle Face Shape Differences,” Horm Behav 62 (2012): 413; N. Rule and N. Ambady, “Democrats and Republicans Can Be Differentiated from Their Faces,” PLoS ONE 5 (2010): e8733; N. Rule et al., “Flustered and Faithful: Embarrassment as a Signal of Prosociality,” JPSP 102 (2012): 81; N. Rule et al., “On the Perception of Religious Group Membership from Faces,” PLoS ONE 5 (2010): e14241.
20.P. Whalen et al., “Human Amygdala Responsivity to Masked Fearful Eye Whites,” Sci 306 (2004): 2061.
21.Footnote: R. Hill and R. Barton, “Red Enhances Human Performance in Contests,” Nat 435 (2005): 293; M. Attrill et al., “Red Shirt Colour Is Associated with Long-Term Team Success in English Football,” JSS 26 (2008): 577; M. Platti et al., “The Red Mist? Red Shirts, Success and Team Sports,” JSS 15 (2012): 1209; A. Ilie et al., “Better to Be Red Than Blue in Virtual Competition,” CyberPsychology & Behav 11 (2008): 375; M. Garcia-Rubio et al., “Does a Red Shirt Improve Sporting Performance? Evidence from Spanish Football,” AEL 18 (2011): 1001; C. Rowe et al., “Sporting Contests: Seeing Red? Putting Sportswear in Context,” Nat 437 (2005): E10.
22.D. Francey and R. Bergmuller, “Images of Eyes Enhance Investments in a Real-Life Public Good,” PLoS ONE 7 (2012): e37397; M. Bateson et al., “Cues of Being Watched Enhance Cooperation in a Real-World Setting,” Biol Lett 2 (2006): 412; K. Haley and D. Fessler, “Nobody’s Watching? Subtle Cues Affect Generosity in an Anonymous Economic Game,” EHB 3 (2005): 245; T. Burnham and B. Hare, “Engineering Human Cooperation,” Hum Nat 18 (2007): 88; M. Rigdon et al., “Minimal Social Cues in the Dictator Game,” JEP 30 (2009): 358.
23.C. Forbes et al., “Negative Stereotype Activation Alters Interaction Between Neural Correlates of Arousal, Inhibition and Cognitive Control,” SCAN 7 (2011): 771.
24.C. Steele, Whistling Vivaldi and Other Clues to How Stereotypes Affect Us (New York: Norton, 2010).
25.L. Mujica-Parodi et al., “Chemosensory Cues to Conspecific Emotional Stress Activate Amygdala in Humans,” PLoS ONE 4 (2009): e6415; W. Zhou and D. Chen, “Fear-Related Chemosignals Modulate Recognition of Fear in Ambiguous Facial Expressions,” Psych Sci 20 (2009): 177; A. Prehn et al., “Chemosensory Anxiety Signals Augment the Startle Reflex in Humans,” Nsci Letters 394 (2006): 127.
26.H. Critchley and N. Harrison, “Visceral Influences on Brain and Behavior,” Neuron 77 (2013): 624; D. Carney et al., “Power Posing Brief Nonverbal Displays Affect Neuroendocrine Levels and Risk Tolerance,” Psych Sci 21 (2010): 1363. Some related findings: A. Hennenlotter et al., “The Link Between Facial Feedback and Neural Activity Within Central Circuitries of Emotion: New Insights from Botulinum Toxin–Induced Denervation of Frown Muscles,” Cerebral Cortex 19 (2009): 357; J. Davis, “The Effects of BOTOX Injections on Emotional Experience,” Emotion 10 (2010): 433.
27.L. Berkowitz, “Pain and Aggression: Some Findings and Implications,” Motivation and Emotion 17 (1993): 277.
28.M. Gailliot et al., “Self-Control Relies on Glucose as a Limited Energy Source: Willpower Is More Than a Metaphor,” JPSP 92 (2007): 325–36; N. Mead et al., “Too Tired to Tell the Truth: Self-Control Resource Depletion and Dishonesty,” JESP 45 (2009): 594; C. DeWall et al., “Depletion Makes the Heart Grow Less Helpful: Helping as a Function of Self-Regulatory Energy and Genetic Relatedness,” PSPB 34 (2008): 1653; B. Briers et al., “Hungry for Money: The Desire for Caloric Resources Increases the Desire for Financial Resources and Vice Versa,” Psych Sci 17 (2006): 939; C. DeWall et al., “Sweetened Blood Cools Hot Tempers: Physiological Self-Control and Aggression,” Aggressive Behav 37 (2011): 73; D. Benton, “Hypoglycemia and Aggression: A Review,” Int J Nsci 41 (1988): 163; B. Bushman et al., “Low Glucose Relates to Greater Aggression in Married Couples,” PNAS USA 111 (2014): 6254. For a reinterpretation of this literature as being about motivation for self-control rather than capacity for it, see M. Inzlicht et al., “Why Self-Control Seems (But May Not Be) Limited,” TICS 18 (2014): 127.
29.V. Liberman et al., “The Name of the Game: Predictive Power of Reputations Versus Situational Labels in Determining Prisoner’s Dilemma Game Moves,” PSPB 30 (2004): 1175; A. Kay and L. Ross, “The Perceptual Push: The Interplay of Implicit Cues and Explicit Situational Construals on Behavioral Intensions in the Prisoner’s Dilemma,” JESP 39 (2003): 634.
30.Footnote: E. Hall et al., “A Rose by Any Other Name? The Consequences of Subtyping ‘African-Americans’ from ‘Blacks,’” JESP 56 (2015): 183.
31.Footnote: K. Jung et al., “Female Hurricanes Are Deadlier Than Male Hurricanes. PNAS 111 (2014): 8782.
32.A. Tversky and D. Kahneman, “Rationale Choice and the Framing of Decisions,” J Business 59 (1986): S251; also see: J. Bargh et al., “Priming In-group Favoritism: The Impact of Normative Scripts in the Minimal Group Paradigm,” JESP 37 (2001): 316; C. Zogmaister et al., “The Impact of Loyalty and Equality on Implicit Ingroup Favoritism,” Group Processes & Intergroup Relations 11 (2008): 493.
33.J. Christensen and A. Gomila, “Moral Dilemmas in Cognitive Neuroscience of Moral Decision-Making: A Principled Review,” Nsci Biobehav Rev 36 (2012): 1249; L. Petrinovich and P. O’Neill, “Influence of Wording and Framing Effects on Moral Intuitions,” Ethology and Sociobiology 17 (1996): 145; R. O’Hara et al., “Wording Effects in Moral Judgments,” Judgment and Decision Making 5 (2010): 547; R. Zahn et al., “The Neural Basis of Human Social Values: Evidence from Functional MRI,” Cerebral Cortex 19 (2009): 276.
34.D. Butz et al., “Liberty and Justice for All? Implications of Exposure to the U.S. Flag for Intergroup Relations,” PSPB 33 (2007): 396; M. Levine et al., “Identity and Emergency Intervention: How Social Group Membership and Inclusiveness of Group Boundaries Shape Helping Behavior,” PSPB 31 (2005): 443; R. Enos, “Causal Effect of Intergroup Contact on Exclusionary Attitudes,” PNAS 111 (2014): 3699.
35.M. Shih et al., “Stereotype Susceptibility: Identity Salience and Shifts in Quantitative Performance,” Psych Sci 10 (1999): 80.
36.P. Fischer et al., “The Bystander-Effect: A Meta-analytic Review on Bystander Intervention in Dangerous and Non-dangerous Emergencies,” Psych Bull 137 (2011): 517.
37.B. Pawlowski et al., “Sex Differences in Everyday Risk-Taking Behavior in Humans,” Evolutionary Psych 6 (2008): 29; B. Knutson et al., “Nucleus Accumbens Activation Mediates the Influence of Reward Cues on Financial Risk Taking,” Neuroreport 26 (2008): 509; V. Griskevic
ius et al., “Blatant Benevolence and Conspicuous Consumption: When Romantic Motives Elicit Strategic Costly Signals,” JPSP 93 (2007): 85; L. Chang et al., “The Face That Launched a Thousand Ships: The Mating-Warring Association in Men,” PSPB 37 (2011): 976; S. Ainsworth and J. Maner, “Sex Begets Violence: Mating Motives, Social Dominance, and Physical Aggression in Men,” JPSP 103 (2012): 819; W. Iredale et al., “Showing Off in Humans: Male Generosity as a Mating Signal,” Evolutionary Psych 6 (2008): 386; M. Van Vugt and W. Iredale, “Men Behaving Nicely: Public Goods as Peacock Tails,” Brit J Psych 104 (2013): 3.
38.J. Q. Wilson and G. Kelling, “Broken Windows,” Atlantic Monthly, March 1982, p. 29.
39.K. Keizer et al., “The Spreading of Disorder,” Sci 322 (2008): 1681.
40.For some nice examples of how the frontal cortex can direct the nature and focus of sensory processing, see G. Gregoriou et al., “Lesions of Prefrontal Cortex Reduce Attentional Modulation of Neuronal Responses and Synchrony in V4,” Nat Nsci 17 (2014): 1003; S. Zhang et al., “Long-Range and Local Circuits for Top-Down Modulation of Visual Cortex Processing,” Sci 345 (2014): 660; and T. Zanto et al., “Causal Role of the Prefrontal Cortex in Top-Down Modulation of Visual Processing and Working Memory,” Nat Nsci 14 (2011): 656.
41.R. Adolphs et al., “A Mechanism for Impaired Fear Recognition After Amygdala Damage,” Nat 433 (2005): 68.
42.M. Dadds et al., “Reduced Eye Gaze Explains Fear Blindness in Childhood Psychopathic Traits,” J the Am Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 47 (2008): 4; M. Dadds et al., “Attention to the Eyes and Fear-Recognition Deficits in Child Psychopathy,” Brit J Psychiatry 189 (2006): 280.
43.For an introduction to this cross-cultural literature, see R. Nisbett et al., “Culture and Systems of Thought: Holistic Versus Analytic Cognition,” Psych Rev 108 (2001): 291; T. Hedden et al., “Cultural Influences on Neural Substrates of Attentional Control,” Psych Sci 19 (2008): 12; J. Chiao, “Cultural Neuroscience: A Once and Future Discipline,” Prog in Brain Res 178 (2009): 287; and H. Chua et al., “Cultural Variation in Eye Movements During Scene Perception,” PNAS 102 (2005): 12629.
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