65.J. Goldman, “Man’s New Best Friend? A Forgotten Russian Experiment in Fox Domestication,” Sci Am, September 2010; D. Belyaev and L. Trut, “Behaviour and Reproductive Function of Animals. II: Correlated Changes Under Breeding for Tameness,” Bull Moscow Soc of Naturalists B Series (in Russian) 69 (1964): 5.
66.S. Sternthal, “Moscow’s Stray Dogs,” Financial Times, January 16, 2010.
67.Footnote: M. Carneiro et al., “Rabbit Genome Analysis Reveals a Polygenic Basis for Phenotypic Change During Domestication,” Sci 345 (2014): 1074.
68.S. Fisher and M. Ridley, “Culture, Genes, and the Human Revolution,” Sci 340 (2013) 929; D. Swallow, “Genetics of Lactase Persistence and Lactose Intolerance,” Ann Rev of Genetics 37 (2003): 197; J. Troelsen, “Adult-Type Hypolactasia and Regulation of Lactase Expression,” Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 1723 (2005): 19.
69.N. Mekel-Bobrov et al., “Ongoing Adaptive Evolution of ASPM, a Brain Size Determinant in Homo sapiens,” Sci 309 (2005): 1720.
70.J. Weiner, The Beak of the Finch: A Story of Evolution in Our Time (New York: Knopf, 1994); J. Neel, “Diabetes Mellitus: A ‘Thrifty’ Genotype Rendered Detrimental by ‘Progress’?” Am J Hum Genetics 14 (1962): 353; J. Diamond, “Sweet Death,” Natural History, February 1992. American versus Mexican Pimas: P. Kopelman, “Obesity as a Medical Problem,” Nat 404 (2000): 635. Genes identified: C. Ezzell, “Fat Times for Obesity Research,” J NIH Research 7 (1995): 39; C. Holden, “Race and Medicine,” Sci 302 (2003): 594; J. Diamond, “The Double Puzzle of Diabetes,” Nat 423 (2003): 599.
71.E. Pennisi, “The Man Who Bottled Evolution,” Sci 342 (2013): 790.
72.S. J. Gould and N. Eldredge, “Punctuated Equilibria: The Tempo and Mode of Evolution Reconsidered,” Paleobiology 3 (1977): 115.
73.P. W. Andrews et al., “Adaptationism—How to Carry Out an Exaptationist Program,” BBS 25 (2002): 489; S. J. Gould and E. S. Vrba, “Exaptation—a Missing Term in the Science of Form,” Paleobiology 8 (1982): 4; A. Figueredo and S. Berry, “‘Just Not So Stories’: Exaptations, Spandrels, and Constraints,” BBS 25 (2002): 517; J. Roney and D. Maestripieri, “The Importance of Comparative and Phylogenetic Analyses in the Study of Adaptation,” BBS 25 (2002): 525.
74.A. Brown, The Darwin Wars: The Scientific Battle for the Soul of Man (New York: Touchstone/Simon and Schuster, 1999).
75.S. J. Gould and R. Lewontin, “The Spandrels of San Marco and the Panglossian Paradigm: A Critique of the Adaptationist Programme,” Proc Royal Soc of London B 205 (1979): 581.
76.D. Barash and J. Lipton, “How the Scientist Got His Ideas,” Chronicle of Higher Education, January 3, 2010.
Chapter 11: Us Versus Them
1.D. Hofstede, Planet of the Apes: An Unofficial Companion (Toronto: ECW Press, 2001).
2.T. A. Ito and G. R. Urland, “Race and Gender on the Brain: Electrocortical Measures of Attention to the Race and Gender of Multiply Categorizable Individuals,” JPSP 85 (2003): 616; T. Ito and B. Bartholow, “The Neural Correlates of Race,” TICS 13 (2009): 524.
3.A. Greenwald et al., “Measuring Individual Differences in Implicit Cognition: The Implicit Association Test,” JPSP 74 (1998): 1464.
4.N. Mahajan et al., “The Evolution of Intergroup Bias: Perceptions and Attitudes in Rhesus Macaques,” JPSP 100 (2011): 387.
5.H. Tajfel, “Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations,” Ann Rev of Psych 33 (1982): 1; H. Tajfel, “Experiments in Intergroup Discrimination,” Sci Am 223 (1970): 96.
6.E. Losin et al., “Own-Gender Imitation Activates the Brain’s Reward Circuitry,” SCAN 7 (2012): 804; B. C. Müller et al., “Prosocial Consequences of Imitation,” Psych Rep 110 (2012): 891.
7.S. B. Flagel et al., “A Selective Role for Dopamine in Stimulus-Reward Learning,” Nat 469 (2011): 53–57.
8.A. S. Baron and M. R. Banaji, “The Development of Implicit Attitudes: Evidence of Race Evaluations from Ages 6, 10, and Adulthood,” Psych Sci 17 (2006): 53; F. E. Aboud, Children and Prejudice (New York: Blackwell, 1988); R. S. Bigler et al., “Social Categorization and the Formation of Intergroup Attitudes in Children,” Child Development 68 (1997): 530; L. A. Hirschfeld, “Natural Assumptions: Race, Essence and Taxonomies of Human Kinds,” Soc Res 65 (1998): 331; R. S. Bigler et al., “Developmental Intergroup Theory: Explaining and Reducing Children’s Social Stereotyping and Prejudice,” Curr Dir Psych Sci 16 (2007): 162; P. Bronson and A. Merryman, “See Baby Discriminate,” Newsweek, September 14, 2009, p. 53 (from their book, Nurture Shock).
9.K. D. Kinzler et al., “The Native Language of Social Cognition,” PNAS 104 (2007); 12577; S. Sangrigoli and S. De Schonen, “Recognition of Own-Race and Other-Race Faces by Three-Month-Old Infants,” J Child Psych and Psychiatry 45 (2004): 1219.
10.S. Sangrigoli et al., “Reversibility of the Other-Race Effect in Face Recognition During Childhood,” Psych Sci 16 (2005): 440.
11.R. Bigler and L. Liben, “Developmental Intergroup Theory: Explaining and Reducing Children’s Social Stereotyping and Prejudice,” Curr Dir Psych Sci 16 (2007): 162.
12.A. J. Cuddy et al., “Stereotype Content Model Across Cultures: Towards Universal Similarities and Some Differences,” Brit J Soc Psych 48 (2009): 1; H. Bernhard et al., “Parochial Altruism in Humans,” Nat 442 (2006): 912.
13.M. Levine et al., “Self-Categorization and Bystander Non-intervention: Two Experimental Studies,” J Applied Soc Psych 32 (2002): 1452; J. M. Engelmann and E. Hermann, “Chimpanzees Trust Their Friends,” Curr Biol 26 (2016): 252.
14.M. Levine et al., “Identity and Emergency Intervention: How Social Group Membership and Inclusiveness of Group Boundaries Shape Helping Behavior,” PSPB 31 (2005): 443.
15.H. A. Hornstein et al., “Effects of Sentiment and Completion of a Helping Act on Observer Helping: A Case for Socially Mediated Zeigarnik Effects,” JPSP 17 (1971): 107.
16.L. Gaertner and C. Insko, “Intergroup Discrimination in the Minimal Group Paradigm: Categorization, Reciprocation, or Fear?” JPSP 79 (2000): 77; T. Wildschut et al., “Intragroup Social Influence and Intergroup Competition,” JPSP 82 (2002): 975; C. A. Insko et al., “Interindividual-Intergroup Discontinuity as a Function of Trust and Categorization: The Paradox of Expected Cooperation,” JPSP 88 (2005): 365.
17.M. Cikara et al., “Us Versus Them: Social Identity Shapes Neural Responses to Intergroup Competition and Harm,” Psych Sci 22 (2011): 306; E. R. de Bruijn et al., “When Errors Are Rewarding,” J Nsci 29 (2009): 12183; J. J. Van Bavel et al., “Modulation of the Fusiform Face Area Following Minimal Exposure to Motivationally Relevant Faces: Evidence of In-group Enhancement (Not Out-group Disregard),” J Cog Nsci 223 (2011): 3343. Footnote: M. Cikar et al., “Their Pain Gives Us Pleasure: How Intergroup Dynamics Shape Empathic Failures and Counter-empathic Responses,” JESP 55 (2014) 110.
18.T. Singer et al., “Empathic Neural Responses Are Modulated by the Perceived Fairness of Others,” Nat 439 (2006): 466; H. Takahashi et al., “When Your Gain Is My Pain and Your Pain Is My Gain: Neural Correlates of Envy and Schadenfreude,” Sci 323 (2009): 937.
19.G. Hertel and N. L. Kerr, “Priming In-group Favoritism: The Impact of Normative Scripts in the Minimal Group Paradigm,” JESP 37 (2001): 316.
20.J. N. Gutsell and M. Inzlicht, “Intergroup Differences in the Sharing of Emotive States: Neural Evidence of an Empathy Gap,” SCAN 7 (2012): 596; J. Y. Chiao et al., “Cultural Specificity in Amygdala Response to Fear Faces,” J Cog Nsci 20 (2008): 2167.
21.P. K. Piff et al., “Me Against We: In-group Transgression, Collective Shame, and In-group-Directed Hostility,” Cog & Emotion 26 (2012): 634.
22.W. Barrett, “Thug Life: The Shocking Secret History of Harold Giuliani, the Mayor’s Ex-Convict Dad,” Village Voice, 5 July, 2000; D. Strober and G. Strober, Giuliani: Flawed or Flawless? (New York: Wiley, 2007).
23.Footnote: J
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24.S. Svonkin, Jews Against Prejudice: American Jews and the Fight for Civil Liberties (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997). Footnote: A. Zahr, “I Refuse to Condemn,” Civil Arab, January 9, 2015, www.civilarab.com/i-refuse-to-condemn/.
25.D. A. Stanley et al., “Implicit Race Attitudes Predict Trustworthiness Judgments and Economic Trust Decisions,” PNAS 108 (2011): 7710; Y. Dunham, “An Angry = Outgroup Effect,” JESP 47 (2011): 668; D. Maner et al., “Functional Projection: How Fundamental Social Motives Can Bias Interpersonal Perception,” JPSP 88 (2005): 63; K. Hugenberg and G. Bodenhausen, “Facing Prejudice: Implicit Prejudice and the Perception of Facial Threat,” Psych Sci 14 (2003): 640; A. Rattan et al., “Race and the Fragility of the Legal Distinction Between Juveniles and Adults,” PLoS ONE 7 (2012): e36680; Y. J. Xiao and J. J. Van Bavel, “See Your Friends Close and Your Enemies Closer: Social Identity and Identity Threat Shape the Representation of Physical Distance,” PSPB 38 (2012): 959; B. Reiek et al., “Intergroup Threat and Outgroup Attitudes: A Meta-analytic Review,” PSPR 10 (2006): 336; H. A. Korn, et al., “Neurolaw: Differential Brain Activity for Black and White Faces Predicts Damage Awards in Hypothetical Employment Discrimination Cases,” Soc Nsci 7 (2012): 398. Activation of insula when interacting with outgroup in game: J. Rilling et al., “Social Cognitive Neural Networks During In-group and Out-group Interactions,” NeuroImage 41 (2008): 1447.
26.P. Rozin et al., “From Oral to Moral,” Science 323 (2009): 1179.
27.G. Hodson and K. Costello, “Interpersonal Disgust, Ideological Orientations, and Dehumanization as Predictors of Intergroup Attitudes,” Psych Sci 18 (2007):691.
28.G. Hodson et al., “A Joke Is Just a Joke (Except When It Isn’t): Cavalier Humor Beliefs Facilitate the Expression of Group Dominance Motives,” JPSP 99 (2010): 460.
29.D. Berreby, Us and Them: The Science of Identity (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008).
30.Leyens et al., “The Emotional Side of Prejudice: The Attribution of Secondary Emotions to Ingroups and Outgroups,” PSPR 4 (2000): 186; K. Wailoo, Pain: A Political History (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2014).
31.J. T. Jost and O. Hunyad, “Antecedents and Consequences of System-Justifying Ideologies,” Curr Dir Psych Sci 14 (2005): 260; G. E. Newman and P. Bloom, “Physical Contact Influences How Much People Pay at Celebrity Auctions,” PNAS 111 (2013): 3705.
32.J. Greenberg et al., “Evidence for Terror Management II: The Effects of Mortality Salience on Reactions to Those Who Threaten or Bolster the Cultural Worldview,” JPSP 58 (1990): 308.
33.J. Haidt, “The Emotional Dog and Its Rational Tail: A Social Intuitionist Approach to Moral Judgment,” Psych Rev 108 (2001): 814; J. Haidt, The Righteous Mind: Why Good People Are Divided by Politics and Religion (New York: Pantheon Books, 2012).
34.Berreby, Us and Them.
35.W. Cunningham et al., “Implicit and Explicit Ethnocentrism: Revisiting the Ideologies of Prejudice,” PSPB 30 (2004): 1332.
36.Footnote: M. J. Wood et al., “Dead and Alive: Beliefs in Contradictory Conspiracy Theories,” Social Psych and Personality Sci 3 (2012): 767.
37.C. Zogmaister et al., “The Impact of Loyalty and Equality on Implicit Ingroup Favoritism,” Group Processes & Intergroup Relations 11 (2008): 493.
38.C. D. Navarrete et al., “Race Bias Tracks Conception Risk Across the Menstrual Cycle,” Psych Sci 20 (2009): 661. C. Navarrete et al., “Fertility and Race Perception Predict Voter Preference for Barack Obama,” EHB 31 (2010): 391.
39.G. E. Newman and P. Bloom, “Physical Contact Influences How Much People Pay at Celebrity Auctions,” PNAS 111 (2013): 3705; R. Sapolsky, “Magical Thinking and the Stain of Madoff’s Sweater,” Wall Street Journal, July 12, 2014.
40.Footnote: S. Boria, Animals in the Third Reich: Pets, Scapegoats, and the Holocaust (Providence, RI: Yogh and Thorn Books, 2000).
41.A. Rutland and R. Brown, “Stereotypes as Justification for Prior Intergroup Discrimination: Studies of Scottish National Stereotyping,” Eur J Soc Psych 31 (2001): 127.
42.C. S. Crandall et al., “Stereotypes as Justifications of Prejudice,” PSPB 37 (2011): 1488.
43.R. Niebuhr, The Nature and Destiny of Man, vol. 1 (London: Nisbet, 1941); B. P. Meier and V. B. Hinsz, “A Comparison of Human Aggression Committed by Groups and Individuals: An Interindividual Intergroup Discontinuity,” JESP 40 (2004): 551; T. Wildschut et al., “Beyond the Group Mind: A Quantitative Review of the Interindividual-Intergroup Discontinuity Effect,” Psych Bull 129 (2003): 698.
44.T. Cohen et al., “Group morality and Intergroup Relation: Cross-Cultural and Experimental Evidence,” PSPB 32 (2006): 1559; T. Wildschut et al., “Intragroup Social Influence and Intergroup Competition,” JPSP 82 (2002): 975.
45.S. Bowles, “Conflict: Altruism’s Midwife,” Nat 456 (2008): 326.
46.M. Shih et al., “Stereotype Susceptibility: Identity Salience and Shifts in Quantitative Performance,” Psych Sci 10 (1999): 80; T. Harada et al., “Dynamic Social Power Modulates Neural Basis of Math Calculation,” Front Hum Nsci 6 (2012): 350; J. Van Bavel and W. Cunningham, “Self-Categorization with a Novel Mixed-Race Group Moderates Automatic Social and Racial Biases,” PSPB 35 (2009): 321; G. Bohner et al., “Situational Flexibility of In-group-Related Attitudes: A Single Category IAT Study of People with Dual National Identity,” Group Processes & Intergroup Relations 11 (2008): 301.
47.N. Jablonski, Skin: A Natural History (Oakland, CA: University of California Press, 2006): A. Gibbons, “Shedding Light on Skin Color,” Sci 346 (2014): 934.
48.R. Hahn, “Why Race Is Differentially Classified on U.S. Birth and Infant Death Certificates: An Examination of Two Hypotheses,” Epidemiology 10 (1999): 108.
49.C. D. Navarrete et al., “Fear Extinction to an Out-group Face: The Role of Target Gender,” Psych Sci 20 (2009): 155; J. P. Mitchell et al., “Contextual Variations in Implicit Evaluation,” J Exp Psych: General 132 (2003): 455; this latter paper is the one involving politicians versus athletes.
50.R. Kurzban et al., “Can Race Be Erased? Coalitional Computation and Social Categorization,” PNAS 98 (2001): 15387.
51.M. E. Wheeler and S. T. Fiske, “Controlling Racial Prejudice: Social-Cognitive Goals Affect Amygdala and Stereotype Activation,” Psych Sci 16 (2005): 56; J. P. Mitchell et al., “The Link Between Social Cognition and Self-Referential Thought in the Medial Prefrontal Cortex,” J Cog Nsci 17 (2005): 1306.
52.M. A. Halleran, The Better Angels of Our Nature: Freemasonry in the American Civil War (Tuscaloosa AL: : University of Alabama Press, 2010).
53.T. Kennealy, The Great Shame: And the Triumph of the Irish in the English-Speaking World (New York: Anchor Books, 2000).
54.Patrick Leigh Fermor obituary, Daily Telegraph (London), June, 11, 2011. For footage of the reunion with Kreipe, see “H AΠAΓΩΓH TOY ΣTPATHΓOY KPAIΠE,” uploaded by Idomeneas Kanakakis on October 21, 2010, www.youtube.com/watch?v=8zlUhJwddFU. For a documentary about the kidnapping and journey, see “The Abduction of Gengeral Kreipe.avi,” uploaded by Nico Mastorakis on February 25, 2012, www.youtube.com/watch?v=vN1qrghgCqI.
55.E. Krusemark and W. Li, “Do All Threats Work the Same Way? Divergent Effects of Fear and Disgust on Sensory Perception and Attention,” J Nsci 31 (2011): 3429.
56.Footnote: M. Plitt et al., “Are Corporations People Too? The Neural Correlates of Moral Judgments About Companies and Individuals,” Social Nsci 10 (2015): 113.
57.S. Fiske et al., “A Model of (Often Mixed) Stereotype Content: Competence and Warmth Respectively Follow from Perceived Status and Competition,” JPSP 82 (2002): 878; L. T. Harris and S. T. Fiske, “Dehumanizing the Lowest of the Low: Neuroimaging Responses to Extreme Out-groups,” Psych Sc
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58.T. Ashworth, Trench Warfare: 1914–1918 (London: Pan Books, 1980).
59.K. B. Clark and M. P. Clark, “Racial Identification and Preference Among Negro Children,” in Readings in Social Psychology, ed. E. L. Hartley (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1947); K. Clark and C. Mamie, “The Negro Child in the American Social Order,” J Negro Education 19 (1950): 341; J. Jost et al., “A Decade of System Justification Theory: Accumulated Evidence of Conscious and Unconscious Bolstering of the Status Quo,” Political Psych 25 (2004): 881; J. Jost et al., “Non-conscious Forms of System Justification: Implicit and Behavioral Preferences for Higher Status Groups,” JESP 38 (2002): 586.
60.S. Lehrman, “The Implicit Prejudice,” Sci Am 294 (2006): 32.
61.K. Kawakami et al., “Mispredicting Affective and Behavioral Responses to Racism,” Sci 323 (2009): 276; B. Nosek, “Implicit-Explicit Relations,” Curr Dir Psych Sci 16 (2007): 65; L. Rudman and R. Ashmore, “Discrimination and the Implicit Association Test,” Group Processes & Intergroup Relations 10 (2007): 359; J. Dovidio et al., “Implicit and Explicit Prejudice and Interracial Interaction,” JPSP 82 (2002): 62. For an additional approach to uncovering implicit biases, see I. Blair, “The Malleability of Automatic Stereotypes and Prejudice,” PSPR 6 (2002): 242.
62.W. Cunningham et al., “Separable Neural Components in the Processing of Black and White Faces,” Psych Sci 15 (2004): 806; W. A. Cunningham et al., “Neural Correlates of Evaluation Associated with Promotion and Prevention Regulatory Focus,” Cog, Affective & Behav Nsci 5 (2005): 202; K. M. Knutso et al., “Neural Correlates of Automatic Beliefs About Gender and Race,” Hum Brain Mapping 28 (2007): 915.
63.B. K. Payne, “Conceptualizing Control in Social Cognition: How Executive Functioning Modulates the Expression of Automatic Stereotyping,” JPSP 89 (2005): 488.
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