Behave: The Biology of Humans at Our Best and Worst

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Behave: The Biology of Humans at Our Best and Worst Page 86

by Robert M. Sapolsky


  64.J. Dovidio et al., “Why Can’t We Just Get Along? Interpersonal Biases and Interracial Distrust,” Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psych 8 (2002): 88.

  65.J. Richeson et al., “An fMRI Investigation of the Impact of Interracial Contact on Executive Function,” Nat Nsci 12 (2003): 1323; J. Richeson and J. Shelton, “Negotiating Interracial Interactions: Cost, Consequences, and Possibilities,” Curr Dir Psych Sci 16 (2007): 316.

  66.J. N. Shelton et al., “Expecting to Be the Target of Prejudice: Implications for Interethnic Interactions,” PSPB 31 (2005): 1189.

  67.P. M. Herr, “Consequences of Priming: Judgment and Behavior,” JPSP 51 (1986): 1106; N. Dasgupta and A. Greenwald, “On the Malleability of Automatic Attitudes: Combating Automatic Prejudice with Images of Admired and Disliked Individuals,” JPSP 81 (2001): 800.

  68.W. A. Cunningham et al., “Rapid Social Perception Is Flexible: Approach and Avoidance Motivational States Shape P100 Responses to Other-Race Faces,” Front Hum Nsci 6 (2012): 140.

  69.A. D. Galinsky and G. B. Moskowitz, “Perspective-Taking: Decreasing Stereotype Expression, Stereotype Accessibility, and In-group Favoritism,” JPSP 78 (2000): 708; I. Blair et al., “Imagining Stereotypes Away: The Moderation of Implicit Stereotypes Through Mental Imagery,” JPSP 81 (2001): 828; T. J. Allen et al., “Social Context and the Self-Regulation of Implicit Bias,” Group Processes & Intergroup Relations 13 (2010): 137; J. Fehr and K. Sassenberg, “Willing and Able: How Internal Motivation and Failure Help to Overcome Prejudice,” Group Processes & Intergroup Relations 13 (2010): 167.

  70.C. Macrae et al., “The Dissection of Selection in Person Perception: Inhibitory Processes in Social Stereotyping,” JPSP 69 (1995): 397.

  71.T. Pettigrew and L. A. Tropp, “A Meta-analytic Test of Intergroup Contact Theory,” JPSP 90 (2006): 751.

  72.A. Rutherford et al., “Good Fences: The Importance of Setting Boundaries for Peaceful Coexistence,” PLoS ONE 9 (2014): e95660; L. G. Babbitt and S. R. Sommers, “Framing Matters: Contextual Influences on Interracial Interaction Outcomes,” PSPB 37 (2011): 1233.

  73.M. J. Williams and J. L. Eberhardt, “Biological Conceptions of Race and the Motivation to Cross Racial Boundaries,” JPSP 94 (2008): 1033.

  74.G. Hodson et al., “A Joke Is Just a Joke (Except When It Isn’t): Cavalier Humor Beliefs Facilitate the Expression of Group Dominance Motives,” JPSP 99 (2010): 460; F. Pratto and M. Shih, “Social Dominance Orientation and Group Context in Implicit Group Prejudice,” Psych Sci 11 (2000): 515; F. Pratto et al., “Social Dominance Orientation and the Legitimization of Inequality Across Cultures,” J Cross-Cultural Psych 31 (2000); 369; F. Durante et al., “Nations’ Income Inequality Predicts Ambivalence in Stereotype Content: How Societies Mind the Gap,” Brit J Soc Psych 52 (2012): 726; A. C. Kay and J. T. Jost, “Complementary Justice: Effects of ‘Poor but Happy’ and ‘Poor but Honest’ Stereotype Exemplars on System Justification and Implicit Activation of the Justice Motive,” JPSP 85 (2003): 823; A Kay, et al., “Victim Derogation and Victim Enhancement as Alternate Routes to System Justification,” Psych Sci 16 (2005): 240.

  75.C. Sibley and J. Duckitt, “Personality and Prejudice: A Meta-analysis and Theoretical Review,” PSPR 12 (2008): 248.

  76.J. Dovidio et al., “Commonality and the Complexity of ‘We’: Social Attitudes and Social Change.,” PSPR 13 (2013): 3; E. Hehman et al., “Group Status Drives Majority and Minority Integration Preferences,” Psych Sci 23 (2011): 46.

  77.A demonstration that a reward shared with an in-group member activates dopaminergic reward pathways more than does the same reward shared with a stranger: J. B. Freeman and D. Fareri et al., “Social Network Modulation of Reward-Related Signals,” J Nsci 32 (2012): 9045.

  Chapter 12: Hierarchy, Obedience, and Resistance

  1.J. Freeman et al., “The Part: Social Status Cues Shape Race Perception,” PLoS ONE 6 (2011): e25107.

  2.Footnote: George, “Faith and Toilets,” Sci Am, November 19, 2015.

  3.R. I. Dunbar and S. Shultz, “Evolution in the Social Brain,” Sci 317 (2007): 1344; R. I. Dunbar, “The Social Brain Hypothesis and Its Implications for Social Evolution,” Ann Hum Biol 36 (2009): 562; F. J. Pérez-Barbería et al. “Evidence for Coevolution of Sociality and Relative Brain Size in Three Orders of Mammals,” Evolution 61 (2007): 2811; J. Powell et al., “Orbital Prefrontal Cortex Volume Predicts Social Network Size: An Imaging Study of Individual Differences in Humans,” Proc Royal Soc B: Biol Sci 279 (2012): 2157; P. A. Lewis et al., “Ventromedial Prefrontal Volume Predicts Understanding of Others and Social Network Size,” Neuroimage 57 (2011): 1624; J. L. Powell et al., “Orbital Prefrontal Cortex Volume Correlates with Social Cognitive Competence,” Neuropsychologia 48 (2010): 3554; J. Lehmann and R. I. Dunbar, “Network Cohesion, Group Size and Neocortex Size in Female-Bonded Old World Primates,” Proc Royal Soc B: Biol Sci 276 (2009): 4417; J. Sallet et al., “Social Network Size Affects Neural Circuits in Macaques,” Sci 334 (2011): 697.

  4.F. Amici et al., “Fission-Fusion Dynamics, Behavioral Flexibility, and Inhibitory Control in Primates,” Curr Biol 18 (2008): 1415; A. B. Bond et al., “Serial Reversal Learning and the Evolution of Behavioral Flexibility in Three Species of North American Corvids (Gymnorhinus cyanocephalus, Nucifraga columbiana, Aphelocoma californica),” JCP 121 (2007): 372; A. Bond et al., “Social Complexity and Transitive Inference in Corvids,” Animal Behav 65 (2003): 479.

  5.J. Lehmann and R. I. Dunbar, “Network Cohesion, Group Size and Neocortex Size in Female-Bonded Old World Primates,” Proc Royal Soc B: Biol Sci 276 (2009): 4417.

  6.J. Powell et al., “Orbital Prefrontal Cortex Volume Predicts Social Network Size: An Imaging Study of Individual Differences in Humans,” Proc Royal Soc B: Biol Sci 279 (2012): 2157; P. A. Lewis et al., “Ventromedial Prefrontal Volume Predicts Understanding of Others and Social Network Size,” Neuroimage 57 (2011): 1624; J. L. Powell et al., “Orbital Prefrontal Cortex Volume Correlates with Social Cognitive Competence,” Neuropsychologia 48 (2010): 3554; K. C. Bickart et al., “Amygdala Volume and Social Network Size in Humans,” Nat Nsci 14 (2011): 163; R. Kanai et al., “Online Social Network Size Is Reflected in Human Brain Structure,” Proc Royal Soc B: Biol Sci 279 (2012): 1327.

  7.F. Elgar et al., “Income Inequality and School Bullying: Multilevel Study of Adolescents in 37 Countries,” J Adolescent Health 45 (2009): 351.

  8.E. González-Bono et al., “Testosterone, Cortisol and Mood in a Sports Team Competition,” Horm Behav 35 (2009): 55; E. González-Bono et al., “Testosterone and Attribution of Successful Competition,” Aggressive Behav 26 (2000): 235.

  9.N. O. Rule et al., “Perceptions of Dominance Following Glimpses of Faces and Bodies,” Perception 41 (2012): 687.

  10.L. Thomsen et al., “Big and Mighty: Preverbal Infants Mentally Represent Social Dominance,” Sci 331 (2011): 477.

  11.S. V. Shepherd et al., “Social Status Gates Social Attention in Monkeys,” Curr Biol 16 (2006): R119; J. Massen et al., “Ravens Notice Dominance Reversals Among Conspecifics Within and Outside Their Social Group,” Nat Communications 5 (2013); 3679.

  12.M. Karafin et al., “Dominance Attributions Following Damage to the Ventromedial Prefrontal Cortex,” J Cog Nsci 16 (2004): 1796; L. Mah et al., “Impairment of Social Perception Associated with Lesions of the Prefrontal Cortex,” Am J Psychiatry 161 (2004): 1247; T. Farrow et al., “Higher or Lower? The Functional Anatomy of Perceived Allocentric Social Hierarchies,” Neuroimage 57 (2011): 1552; C. F. Zink et al., “Know Your Place: Neural Processing of Social Hierarchy in Humans,” Neuron 58 (2008): 273.

  13.A. A. Marsh et al., “Dominance and Submission: The Ventrolateral Prefrontal Cortex and Responses to Status Cues,” J Cog Nsci 21 (2009): 713; T. Allison et al., “Social Perception from Visual Cues: Role of the STS Region,” TICS 4 (2000): 267; J. B. Freeman et al., “Culture Shapes a Mesolimbic
Response to Signals of Dominance and Subordination That Associates with Behavior,” Neuroimage 47 (2009): 353.

  14.M. Nader et al., “Social Dominance in Female Monkeys: Dopamine Receptor Function and Cocaine Reinforcement,” BP 72 (2012): 414; M. P. Noonan et al., “A Neural Circuit Covarying with Social Hierarchy in Macaques,” PLoS Biol 12 (2014): e1001940; F. Wang et al., “Bidirectional Control of Social Hierarchy by Synaptic Efficacy in Medial Prefrontal Cortex,” Sci 334 (2011): 693.

  15.M. Rushworth et al., “Are There Specialized Circuits for Social Cognition and Are They Unique to Humans?” PNAS 110 (2013): 10806.

  16.For example: J. C. Beehner et al., “Testosterone Related to Age and Life-History Stages in Male Baboons and Geladas,” Horm Behav 56 (2009): 472.

  17.J. Brady et al., “Avoidance Behavior and the Development of Duodenal Ulcers,” J the Exp Analysis of Behav 1 (1958): 69; J. Weiss, “Effects of Coping Responses on Stress,” J Comp Physiological Psych 65 (1968): 251.

  18.R. Sapolsky, “The Influence of Social Hierarchy on Primate Health,” Sci 308 (2005): 648; H. Uno et al., “Hippocampal Damage Associated with Prolonged and Fatal Stress in Primates,” J Nsci 9 (1989): 1705; R. Sapolsky et al., “Hippocampal Damage Associated with Prolonged Glucocorticoid Exposure in Primates,” J Nsci l0 (1990): 2897; See also E. Archie et al., “Social Status Predicts Wound Healing in Wild Baboons,” PNAS 109 (2012): 9017.

  19.R. Sapolsky, “The Physiology of Dominance in Stable Versus Unstable Social Hierarchies,” in Primate Social Conflict, ed. W. Mason and S. Mendoza (New York: SUNY Press, 1993).

  20.L. R. Gesquiere et al., “Life at the Top: Rank and Stress in Wild Baboons,” Sci 333 (2011): 357.

  21.D. Abbott et al., “Are Subordinates Always Stressed? A Comparative Analysis of Rank Differences in Cortisol Levels Among Primates,” Horm Behav 43 (2003): 67.

  22.R. Sapolsky and J. Ray, “Styles of Dominance and Their Physiological Correlates Among Wild Baboons,” Am J Primat 18 (1989) 1; J. C. Ray and R. Sapolsky, “Styles of Male Social Behavior and Their Endocrine Correlates Among High-Ranking Baboons,” Am J Primat 28 (1992): 231; C. E. Virgin and R. Sapolsky, “Styles of Male Social Behavior and Their Endocrine Correlates Among Low-Ranking Baboons,” Am J Primat 42 (1997): 25.

  23.J. Chiao et al., “Neural Basis of Preference for Human Social Hierarchy Versus Egalitarianism,” ANYAS 1167 (2009): 174; J. Sidanius et al., “You’re Inferior and Not Worth Our Concern: The Interface Between Empathy and Social Dominance Orientation,” J Personality 81 (2012): 313.

  24.G. Sherman et al., “Leadership Is Associated with Lower Levels of Stress,” PNAS 109 (2012): 17903; R. Sapolsky, “Importance of a Sense of Control and the Physiological Benefits of Leadership,” PNAS 109 (2012): 17730.

  25.N. Adler and J. Ostrove, “SES and Health: What We Know and What We Don’t,” ANYAS 896 (1999): 3; R. Wilkinson, Mind the Gap: Hierarchies, Health and Human Evolution (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 2000); I. Kawachi and B. Kennedy, The Health of Nations: Why Inequality Is Harmful to Your Health (New York: New Press, 2002); M. Marmot, The Status Syndrome: How Social Standing Affects Our Health and Longevity (New York: Bloomsbury, 2015).

  26.A. Todorov et al., “Inferences of Competence from Faces Predict Election Outcomes,” Sci 308 (2005): 1623.

  27.T. Tsukiura and R. Cabeza, “Shared Brain Activity for Aesthetic and Moral Judgments: Implications for the Beauty-Is-Good Stereotype,” SCAN 6 (2011): 138.

  28.K. Dion et al., “What Is Beautiful Is Good,” JPSP 24 (1972): 285.

  29.N. K. Steffens and S. A. Haslam, “Power Through ‘Us’: Leaders’ Use of We-Referencing Language Predicts Election Victory,” PLoS ONE 8 (2013): e77952.

  30.B. R. Spisak et al., “Warriors and Peacekeepers: Testing a Biosocial Implicit Leadership Hypothesis of Intergroup Relations Using Masculine and Feminine Faces,” PLoS ONE 7 (2012): e30399; B. R. Spisak, “The General Age of Leadership: Older-Looking Presidential Candidates Win Elections During War,” PLoS ONE 7 (2012): e36945; B. R. Spisak et al., “A Face for All Seasons: Searching for Context-Specific Leadership Traits and Discovering a General Preference for Perceived Health,” Front Hum Nsci 8 (2014): 792.

  31.J. Antonakis and O. Dalgas, “Predicting Elections: Child’s Play!” Sci 323 (2009): 1183.

  32.K. Smith et al., “Linking Genetics and Political Attitudes: Reconceptualizing Political Ideology,” Political Psych 32 (2011): 369.

  33.G. Hodson and M. Busseri, “Bright Minds and Dark Attitudes: Lower Cognitive Ability Predicts Greater Prejudice Through Right-Wing Ideology and Low Intergroup Contact,” Psych Sci 32 (2012): 187; C. Sibley and J. Duckitt, “Personality and Prejudice: A Meta-analysis and Theoretical Review,” PSPR 12 (2008): 248.

  34.L. Skitka et al., “Dispositions, Ideological Scripts, or Motivated Correction? Understanding Ideological Differences in Attributions for Social Problems,” JPSP 83 (2002): 470; L. J. Skitka, “Ideological and Attributional Boundaries on Public Compassion: Reactions to Individuals and Communities Affected by a Natural Disaster,” PSPB 25 (1999): 793; L. J. Skitka and P. E. Tetlock, “Providing Public Assistance: Cognitive and Motivational Processes Underlying Liberal and Conservative Policy Preferences,” JPSP (1993): 65, 1205; G. S. Morgan et al., “When Values and Attributions Collide: Liberals’ and Conservatives’ Values Motivate Attributions for Alleged Misdeeds,” PSPB 36 (2010): 1241; J. T. Jost and M. Krochik, “Ideological Differences in Epistemic Motivation: Implications for Attitude Structure, Depth of Information Processing, Susceptibility to Persuasion, and Stereotyping,” Advances in Motivation Sci 1 (2014): 181.

  35.S. Eidelman et al., “Low-Effort Thought Promotes Political Conservatism,” PSPB 38 (2012): 808; H. Thórisdóttir and J. T. Jost, “Motivated Closed-Mindedness Mediates the Effect of Threat on Political Conservatism,” Political Psych 32 (2011): 785.

  36.B. Briers et al., “Hungry for Money: The Desire for Caloric Resources Increases the Desire for Financial Resources and Vice Versa,” Psych Sci 17 (2006): 939; S. Danziger et al., “Extraneous Factors in Judicial Decisions,” PNAS 108 (2011): 6889. The preceding is the source of the figure in the text. C. Schein and K. Gray, “The Unifying Moral Dyad,” PSPB 41 (2015): 1147.

  37.S. J. Thoma, “Estimating Gender Differences in the Comprehension and Preference of Moral Issues,” Developmental Rev 6 (1986): 165; S. J. Thoma, “Research on the Defining Issues Test,” in Handbook of Moral Development, ed. M. Killen and J. Smetana (New York: Psychology Press 2006), p. 67; N. Mahwa et al., “The Distinctiveness of Moral Judgment,” Educational Psych Rev 11 (1999): 361; E. Turiel, The Development of Social Knowledge: Morality and Convention (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983); N. Kuyel and R. J. Clover, “Moral Reasoning and Moral Orientation of U.S. and Turkish University Students,” Psych Rep 107 (2010): 463.

  38.J. Haidt, “The New Synthesis in Moral Psychology,” Sci 316 (2007): 998; G. L. Baril and J. C. Wright, “Different Types of Moral Cognition: Moral Stages Versus Moral Foundations,” Personality and Individual Differences 53 (2012): 468.

  39.N. Shook and R. Fazio, “Political Ideology, Exploration of Novel Stimuli, and Attitude Formation,” JESP 45 (2009): 995; M. D. Dodd et al., “The Political Left Rolls with the Good and the Political Right Confronts the Bad: Connecting Physiology and Cognition to Preferences,” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Soc B 640 (2012) 640; K. Bulkeley, “Dream Content and Political Ideology,” Dreaming 12 (2002): 61; J. Vigil, “Political Leanings Vary with Facial Expression Processing and Psychosocial Functioning,” Group Processes & Intergroup Relations 13 (2011): 547; J. Jost et al., “Political Conservatism as Motivated Social Cognition,” Psych Bull 129 (2003): 339; L. Castelli and L. Carraro, “Ideology Is Related to Basic Cognitive Processes Involved in Attitude Formation,” JESP 47 (2011): 1013; L. Carraro et al., “Implicit and Explicit Illusory Correlation as a Function of Political Ideology,” PLoS ONE 9 (2014
): e96312; J. R. Hibbing et al., “Differences in Negativity Bias Underlie Variations in Political Ideology,” BBS 37 (2014): 297.

  40.For an interesting analysis of the relationships among rank, stability, and risk aversion, see J. Jordan et al., “Something to Lose and Nothing to Gain: The Role of Stress in the Interactive Effect of Power and Stability on Risk Taking,” Administrative Sci Quarterly 56 (2011): 530. Discussed in: J. Jost et al., “Political Conservatism as Motivated Social Cognition,” Psych Bull 129 (2003): 339.

  41.P. Nail et al., “Threat Causes Liberals to Think Like Conservatives,” JESP 45 (2009): 901; J. Greenberg et al., “The Causes and Consequences of the Need for Self-Esteem: A Terror Management Theory,” in Public Self and Private Self, ed. R. Baumeister (New York: Springer, 1986); T. Verlag Pyszczynski et al., “A Dual Process Model of Defense Against Conscious and Unconscious Death-Related Thoughts: An Extension of Terror Management Theory,” Psych Rev 106 (1999): 835.

  42.J. L. Napier and J. T. Jost, “Why Are Conservatives Happier Than Liberals?” Psych Sci 19 (2008): 565.

  43.J. Block and J. Block, “Nursery School Personality and Political Orientation Two Decades Later,” J Res in Personality 40 (2006): 734. Also see: M. R. Tagar et al., “Heralding the Authoritarian? Orientation Toward Authority in Early Childhood,” Psych Sci 25 (2014): 883; R. C. Fraley et al., “Developmental Antecedents of Political Ideology: A Longitudinal Investigation from Birth to Age 18 Years,” Psych Sci 23 (2012): 1425.

  44.Y. Inbar et al., “Disgusting Smells Cause Decreased Liking of Gay Men,” Emotion 12 (2012): 23; T. Adams et al., “Disgust and the Politics of Sex: Exposure to a Disgusting Odorant Increases Politically Conservative Views on Sex and Decreases Support for Gay Marriage,” PLoS ONE 9 (2014): e95572; H. A. Chapman and A. K. Anderson, “Things Rank and Gross in Nature: A Review and Synthesis of Moral Disgust,” Psych Bull 139 (2013): 300.

  45.G. Hodson and K. Costello, “Interpersonal Disgust, Ideological Orientations, and Dehumanization as Predictors of Intergroup Attitudes,” Psych Sci 18 (2007): 691; K. Smith et al., “Disgust Sensitivity and the Neurophysiology of Left-Right Political Orientations,” PLoS ONE 6 (2011): e2552.

 

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