Nigel Cawthorne
Page 17
Konoye: We can contemplate a one- or two-year war with equanimity, but not so a war that might last more than two years.
Tojo: That reflection is the prime minister’s personal opinion.
Konoye: I would rather a diplomatic solution than war.
Tojo: The question of the prime minister’s confidence in going to war should have been discussed in the Imperial Council. The prime minister attended, did he not? There can be no question now of his evading his responsibilities.
Konoye: Not only do I have no confidence in going to war but I refuse to take responsibility for doing so. The only action taken by the Imperial Council was to determine the measures to be taken should all diplomatic means fail. I still have confidence in a diplomatic solution.
Later Tojo taunted Konoye to his face, saying: ‘Once in his life, a man should know when to throw himself from the terrace of the Kiyomizu temple.’ The Japanese expression ‘jump off the stage at Kiyomizu’ – a famous temple in Kyoto – is the equivalent of the English ‘take the plunge’. Despite the prime minister’s protests, behind his back plans for war were already well advanced. Speaking of the attack on Pearl Harbor, its leader Mitsuo Fuchida said:
This was the culmination of my every waking thought since that day, 24 September 1941, when Commander [Minoru] Genda [who planned the air attack] had taken me aside at Kagoshima on the southern tip of Kyushu and said: ‘Don’t be alarmed, Fuchida, but we want you to lead our air force in the event we attack Pearl Harbor.’
My heart was pounding with the excitement of the proposal when Genda took me on board the Akagi for a conference … In that conference Commander Genda urged the use of torpedoes against the ships in Pearl Harbor.
‘But that’s impossible,’ I protested. ‘The water depth in Pearl Harbor only averages about 32 feet.’
Genda insisted that if we could find a way to torpedo the ships in such shallow water, it would add to the surprise of the attack … So at last I agreed to find a way. And I had only two and a half months. Indeed, less than that, because that day I learned that December was the month planned for the attack. Although officially we spoke of ‘If we attack …’ we all thought ‘When we attack …’
EXCLUDE THE UNITED STATES
The military had the ear of the emperor and, on 16 October 1941, Prince Konoye was forced to resign as prime minister. He was replaced by Tojo – nicknamed ‘The Razor’ – who retained his portfolio as minister for war. However, when he was interviewed in Sugamo Prison in 1948, Tojo claimed that his original plan had not included the invasion of the Philippines – and he knew nothing about the planned attack on Pearl Harbor:
I did not wish to drag the United States into the war. I became prime minister in October 1941 and called a conference of the chiefs of the Army, Navy and Government staffs … I expressed the opinion that Japan should go to war with England and Holland, but exclude the United States. However, it was the Navy’s opinion … that to go to war with England and Holland would cause the United States to enter the war. The Navy further opined that if the United States was to enter the war anyway, that she should be included in the initial attack … I did not know at the time that the Navy already had well-laid plans for the Pearl Harbor attack … At a later conference, I believe in November 1941, I was informed of this plan. I thought initially that ‘to go to war with the United States’ meant an attack on the Philippines.
Tojo certainly seemed to be in a belligerent mood on 1 November when he summoned the chiefs of staffs of the army and navy, General Sugiyama and Admiral Nagano, and their deputies to a stormy cabinet meeting. However, foreign minister Shinegori Togo still urged caution.
Togo: It is unlikely that the Germans will succeed in effecting a landing in England, even with our assistance. And, in any case, we should not delude ourselves about the contribution that collaboration with Germany and Italy can make to our cause.
Sugiyama: We need the help of no one to achieve our objectives in our campaign in the south. Once that is over, China will be isolated and will capitulate. Next spring we shall turn our attention to the Soviet Union.
Finance Minister Kaya: We have confidence in a war lasting two years. But not beyond.
Tojo: Anyway, that gives us two years.
Togo: Why take such a risk? The western powers won’t attack us, they have enough on their plate with the war in Europe. It is to our advantage to maintain peace.
Nagano: After two years at war, we shall have made all the conquered territory impregnable. We shall not fear America, however strong she is then.
Sugiyama: The first half of December is the right time to start active operations. We can temporize no longer with only a month to go. Let us break off diplomatic negotiations now and prepare unequivocally for war.
Deputy Chief of Staff of the Army Tsukada: The decision to go to war should be taken at once.
Togo: 2,600 years of Japanese history cannot be dismissed so glibly.
Tsukada: The Army must have an immediate decision.
Deputy Chief of Staff of the Navy Ito: The Navy will be ready by 20 November. Why not continue negotiations until then?
Tsukada: The Army cannot wait longer than 13 November. I propose that, as from 13 November, military action takes priority over diplomatic action.
Shimada [for the Navy]: Why not continue negotiating to within 24 hours of launching an attack?
After 16 hours of heated debate, the date for military action to take over from diplomacy was eventually set at 30 November. By that time Fuchida was ready for war:
Early in November I licked the torpedo problem. We added more fins to our torpedoes and planned to drop them from a height of 52 feet instead of the usual 300 or more …
And now 7 December was here, and our air armada was air-borne. We flew though heavy clouds for 45 minutes. Then I turned on the radio-direction finder and picked up the Honolulu radio statio … I adjusted the antenna and found we were five degrees off course. I corrected this. As I continued to listen I heard the announcer give the weather report: ‘Averaging partly cloudy, with clouds mostly over the mountains. Cloud base at 3,500 feet. Visibility good. Wind north at ten knots an hour.’
We could not have asked for better weather.
BRAVE SUBJECTS
After the attack was over Emperor Hirohito – whose chosen reign name, Showa, means ‘bright peace’ – signed a formal declaration of war dated 8 December 2601 (the Japanese Emperor Era being reckoned from the accession of Emperor Jimmu, legendary founder of the imperial line, in 660 bc). Hirohito’s declaration of war read:
We, by the grace of heaven, Emperor of Nippon, seated on the Throne of a line unbroken for ages eternal, enjoin you, Our loyal and brave subjects:
We hereby declare war on the United States of America and the British Empire. The men and officers of Our Army and Navy shall do their utmost in prosecuting the war … the entire nation with a united will shall mobilize their total strength so that nothing will miscarry in the attainment of our war aims.
To ensure the stability of East Asia and to contribute to world peace is the far-sighted policy which was formulated by Our Great Illustrious Imperial Grandsire and Our Great Imperial Sire succeeding Him, and which We lay constantly to heart.
To cultivate friendship among nations to enjoy prosperity in common with all nations has always been the guiding principle of Our Empire’s foreign policy. It has been truly unavoidable and far from Our wishes that Our Empire has now been brought to cross swords with America and Britain.
More than four years have passed since China, failing to comprehend the true intentions of Our Empire, and recklessly courting trouble, disturbed the peace of East Asia and compelled Our Empire to take up arms.
Although there has been re-established the national Government of China, with which Nippon has effected neighbourly intercourse and co-operation, the regime which has survived at Chungking, relying upon American and British protection, still continues its fratricidal opposition.
Eager for the realization of their inordinate ambition to dominate the Orient, both America and Britain, giving support to the Chungking regime, have aggravated the disturbances in East Asia. Moreover, these two Powers, inducing other countries to follow suit, increased military preparations on all sides of Our Empire to challenge us … Our Empire for its existence and self-defence has no other recourse but to appeal to arms to crush every obstacle in its path.
… We rely upon the loyalty and courage of Our subjects in Our confident expectation that the task bequeathed by Our forefathers will be carried forward, and that the sources of evil will be speedily eradicated and an enduring peace immutably established in East Asia, preserving thereby the glory of Our Empire.
The public reaction to the attack on Pearl Harbor was recalled by Dr Kawai, the chief editorial writer of the Nippon Times, who held a BA, MA and PhD from Stanford University:
I do not think that the popular morale was ever very high, even in 1941 at the beginning … I was surprised as I expected to see bands, parades, cheering … It was in striking contrast to the Russo–Japanese War [of 1904–5]. The people had then been taught to hate the Russians and to regard them as enemies, so the war was popular. This time it was a matter of indifference and of shock. During the first few months this feeling changed to one of over-confidence as news of victories came in. But it was not a spontaneous feeling, rather one whipped up by propaganda. However, the over-confidence did not last long. The people did not know the true war news, but they began to feel the shortages from the second year of the war on. There was distinct dissatisfaction, though of course it was not open.
Some were more gung-ho. A diary captured in 1943 quoted the song of the military academy, which expounded the Japanese idea of Hakko Ichiu (‘all the world under one roof’):
We will plant the Rising Sun flag, dyed with our life blood, on a far desert with its twinkling stars; when the lion roars beneath the trees. We will drag the very crocodile out of the Ganges, where it flows at the foot of the Himalayas. The paper carp shall flutter high about the City of London. Today Berlin, tomorrow Moscow, and snowy Siberia will still be in our hands. Our grandchildren shall raise a monument to us in a Chicago purged of gangsters. And when our time comes to cross the Styx, we will wrestle with the Shades themselves.
The Japanese military were well prepared for war, and their initial victories were swift. On 18 December 1942, a diary fell into American hands in New Guinea that told of the run-up to war.
29 November: American has taken off the mask with which she had disguised herself until now. We are going to meet the enemy at Guam Island with ever increasing spirit.
3 December: It seems that the Japanese–American talks will finally break down.
4 December: Worshipped at the Imperial Palace at 0830. Gave three banzais. There was a speech. Japan–America war! It looks as though all the hardships we have borne until now will be rewarded. We have received life of Showa’s reign. Men have no greater love than this. Convoy to sail at 0900. Now prosper fatherland … The Empire has decided to go to war against America, Britain and Holland. The Southern District Army will quickly capture important regions in the Philippines, British Malaya and the Dutch Indies after the first attack on 8 December. For this purpose the first Japanese–American air attack will be carried out …
8 December: War declared!
10 December: 0130 Begin getting into barges. 0230 Opposed landing [sic]. No sound of enemy fire. Landed without the loss of a single life. Passing the coral reefs was difficult …
11 December: American and native troops surrendered.
Numerous diaries like this one were captured during the war. While British and American troops were told to burn personal effects before they went into battle, a surprising number of Japanese went to war carrying diaries and letters. When these were found in the possession of prisoners, or on dead soldiers, they were taken for translation by the Allied Translator and Interpreter Section (ATIS) as they were frequently full of invaluable intelligence material. In their diaries, Japanese soldiers often wrote that they were amazed at how good Allied intelligence was, when in fact they themselves were providing it.
KUBOTA’S DIARY
One captured diary belonged to Sub-Lieutenant Kumataro Kubota of Number 122 Regiment from the city of Matsuyama, the capital of the Ehime prefecture in southern Japan. On 1 November 2601, he and his unit were mobilized. Two weeks later they embarked at the nearby port of Mitsugahama, ready to go to war, though there were still over three weeks to go until the attack on Pearl Harbor. Kubota noted in his diary:
15 November: Start! To the Front where one marches over dead bodies, we start. The ship is already prepared to take us on our way. Goodbye homeland. Goodbye, the moments of the busy life of a human being. We are leaving Mitsugahama.
16 November: To the south the ship is speeding. On the blue sea the white gulls are floating. Are they going to the Front with us?
17 November: The white clouds are streaming towards the north. Where is the source of the Great Universe? Alas, there is fighting among the men. Everyone wants to be a winner.
On 20 November, they landed on Formosa (now Taiwan) – a Japanese possession since the first Sino–Japanese War of 1894–5. The other Japanese soldiers Kubota met there bolstered his patriotism, though he had to wait another ten days before he heard the earth-shattering news:
8 December: The news of the declaration of war against America and England broke with the morning sun. At the same time Hawaii, Guam and the Philippines were taken.
This was a little premature. Although Pearl Harbor, Guam and the Philippines had all been attacked on 8 December, Japanese time, Hawaii was never taken. Guam was not taken until 11 December and the Philippines were overrun the following year. Nevertheless, Kubota was delighted.
9 December: The great order of the Proclamation of War by the Emperor has fallen. People have waited; nations have waited; and now men who have waited have the opportunity to bury their bodies on foreign soil.
However, he would have to wait another two weeks before he could join in the action. The night before they sailed, he recorded that 13 petty officers from the torpedo boat Takawo went to see one last movie, noting that ‘it was their last pleasure in the human tragedies’.
23 December: Boarded the ship, the Shun-yo-maru, which is leaving our Empire. Oh, Shun-yo-maru, I pray you reach your destination safely. I pray to God for my child’s health and happiness. I think of this, the well-being of my child, before I think of my safe return home.
The following day, his company was given a pep talk by its commander:
24 December: Today is the day after we joined the Greater East Asia war. We have lived safely in our own harbours and bays, but now everyone must realize that real struggle is before us. Now we are seeing victory after victory since 8 December and we are beginning to look on the war as one great sham. This attitude will lead us to disaster …Thinking of the enemy as a light one brings us to a most dangerous conclusion. The war has just begun and there are hardships before us.
Soon Kubota was preparing to go ashore, but he revealed no fear of the fighting to come:
26 December: Preparation for the Front is completed. Troops are on the boat. Warships guard us … one’s great obligation and duty is to guard the Empire. Fight, my daring squad! Guard our Emperor’s life! Advance towards the trenches. Die like a flower blown down by the wind! Advance with the flag of the Rising Sun! Thrust with the white blade of the Japanese sword! Forward with high spirit even though San Ferdinand beach in the Philippines is well fortified! The waves will be high and the fortifications long and strong, but we will always go forward!
The Japanese went ashore in the Gulf of Lingayen in three waves, protected by naval gunfire and an anti-aircraft screen, while torpedo boats saw off an enemy submarine:
30 December: Our convoy of transport with the protection of the 51st Torpedo Boat Group began operations at eight o’clock in the morning … Look at th
e ordeals of those brave torpedo boats which guard their land-based comrades. It is like mother birds caring for their young. She flies to the front, to the rear, to the sides, watching that the slow tottering babies come to no harm. And so the torpedo boats guard us from the attack from submarines. The waves roll over those arrow-like little boats, splashing their slender figures. I felt proud and the thought that we were the sons of Tenno [the heavenly emperor] increased.
But Kubota was held back aboard ship. He was saved from the first murderous onslaught and it was another two days before he could go ashore.
31 December: Tomorrow we will reach our destination … Thanks for all of your efforts, my comrades of the sea! These are the words of the man of Shikoku [Kubota’s home island], ‘Goodbye brave comrade! I am going to Manila and give my last thrust to the enemy’s throat. And may the flag of the Rising Sun electrify the air!’
So we exchange our thoughts. Good luck, those white sailors’ caps waving at us and we returned the wave with our service caps. Goodbye Comrade! Thank you for the protection you have given us. The land is now ours. There is no barbed wire, nor forts nor shells to fear! We are the sons of the Mikado and ready with our bullets of human flesh!
Tomorrow is the New Year, the 17th year of Showa! Landing in the face of the enemy is due tomorrow … the whole opening fire of the enemy is due tomorrow. Wait our people with good health, you will hear of the fall of Manila.
Then his big day came.
1 January 1942: The critical 16th year of Showa ended with storm and distress. Now we are looking at the mountains towards the south. The sea is calm and the morning quiet. I am writing with the feeling promoted by our Battalion Commander’s talk: ‘Go ahead with a friendliness among you and keep in good health and high spirits.’
The transport fleet swings into single file as I write. Friendly aeroplanes are flying over our heads. The New Year morning sun is very hot and our duties are important ones. I must spur on the men under me.