Underground Warfare 1914-1918
Page 1
First published in Great Britain in 2010 by
Pen & Sword Military
an imprint of
Pen & Sword Books Ltd
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Barnsley
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Copyright © Simon Jones, 2010
ISBN 978 1 84415 962 8
eISBN: 9781844684700
The right of Simon Jones to be identified as Author of this Work has been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
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Contents
List of Plates
Abbreviations
Glossary
Preface
Chapter 1 Military Mining Before 1914
Chapter 2 Mining Operations 1914 – early 1915
Chapter 3 French Mining Sectors: Carency, Oise, Les Eparges and Vauquois
Chapter 4 British Mining operations 1915 – early 1916
Chapter 5 Hohenzollern and St Eloi 1916
Chapter 6 The Somme 1916
Chapter 7 Vimy, Arras and Messines 1917
Chapter 8 Miners and Technology
Chapter 9 Tunnels and the Infantry Attack
Chapter 10 Underground Accommodation and Communications
Chapter 11 Conclusion
Notes
Bibliography
To Nicola with love
List of Plates
The British siege exercise at Chatham in July 1907.
A French miner at the face of demi-galerie G5, Beta salient, Carency.
German miners in chalk, Somme.
German mine gallery, Hooge, Ypres Salient, late 1916 or early 1917.
A French officer uses a geophone to detect the sounds of German mining.
The opposing lines and mine-riven no man’s land of Éparges ridge.
The aftermath of a German mine blow viewed from their side of the Éparges ridge.
Vauquois, 16 June 1916.
Sapper William Hackett of Mexborough, Rotherham.
The explosion of 40,600lbs of ammonal by 252 Tunnelling Company beneath Hawthorn Ridge.
General Plumer, Major General Harington and Lieutenant General Byng.
Lieutenant Colonel Mike Watkins MBE lifts a bag of ammonal explosive from a 6,500lb mine charge.
A German electrical boring machine used for dugout construction.
Men of the German 148th Infantry Regiment in a tunnel 15m below ground in the Champagne area in 1917.
‘To the last penny.’ A well-stocked canteen store.
The Grange Subway, one of twelve infantry communication tunnels prepared prior to the assault on Vimy Ridge in April 1917.
A German dugout.
A scene in a German dugout at 9m depth.
Bunks in the main gallery of Martha House Dugout, 1996.
The shaft to the Vampir dugout excavated by the Association for Battlefield Archaeology and Conservation in 2008.
A stepped incline entrance to a British dugout system at Ravine Wood.
The British siege exercise at Chatham in July 1907. Mines of 200lbs and 250lbs of gunpowder have been blown by the attackers against Fort Bridgewoods, viewed from within the defences. The mines caused craters of 26 and 32ft diameter, but no damage to the defenders’ countermines. (From Report of the Siege Operations held at Chatham July and August 1907).
A French miner at the face of demi-galerie G5, Beta salient, Carency, prepares for the mining attack of 9 May 1915. British miners would probably not have used such close-timbering in chalk unless the strata was shaken by previous explosions. (From Thobie, La Prise de Carency).
German miners in chalk, Somme. The mate places the chalk into a sandbag by hand. Working quietly in chalk was extremely difficult and meant that there were fewer unexpected break-ins in chalk compared to clay areas. The scene is identical to British working practice except the British miners used less timbering in chalk and larger tools. (From Das Ehrenbuch der Deutschen Pioniere).
German mine gallery, Hooge, Ypres Salient, late 1916 or early 1917. Heavy and close timbering was required for the wet Flanders sands and these German miners are wearing waterproof clothing to protect against dripping and flooded galleries. The smaller pipe, bottom right, was connected to a water pump, the larger pipe, top left, was for ventilation. The man in front is descending a shaft to a deeper system. Behind him is Lieutenant Kurt Schmölling, commanding 352 Pioneer Mining Company, who was killed at Langemarck on 7 August 1917. (From Mineur in Flandern).
A French officer uses a geophone to detect the sounds of German mining. This invention enabled both the distance and direction of underground sounds to be identified, but required training and aptitude. The nerves and concentration necessary to remain alone and motionless for long periods underground in close proximity to the enemy may be deduced. (Imperial War Museum Q69984).
The opposing lines and mine-riven no man’s land of Éparges ridge, called by the Germans Combres Höhe, April 1917. The Germans held the summit with a deep and comprehensive trench system, which was mirrored below ground by a powerful mine network. They have driven through the summit of the ridge to blow the less complete French trenches on the left. Point X, where the French initiated mining in November 1914, is farthest from the camera. (Author).
The aftermath of a German mine blow viewed from their side of the Éparges ridge in a photograph dated 15 August 1918, which makes it amongst the last mine blows of the war. As at Vauquois, the Germans used a steep reverse slope to begin deep mine galleries and about 17 entrances are visible, betrayed by the light-coloured mining spoil. (Author).
Vauquois, 16 June 1916. No trace of the village remains and the crest is a continuous line of craters. The German positions are along the lower part of the photograph and the German mine entrances and spoil tipped down the slope are just visible. The crater from the largest mine blown in the war, the German 50-tonne charge of 14 May 1916, is at the west end of the ridge on the right. (Author).
Sapper William Hackett of Mexborough, Rotherham, who served with 254 Tunnelling Company and was the only Tunneller to be awarded the Victoria Cross. Forty-three years old, in age and physique he was typical of the highly experienced miners who were recruited direct from British collieries into the Tunnelling Companies. (Author).
The explosion of 40,600lbs of ammonal by 252 Tunnelling Company beneath Hawthorn Ridge at 7.20am at the opening of the Battle of the Somme on 1 July 1916. The blowing of the mine ten minutes before zero was indicative of British inexperience in integrating mines with a complex attack by infantry and artillery. (Imperial War Museum Q754).
General Plumer, with white moustache, GOC British 2nd Army with, behind him, Major General Harington, his Chief of Staff, and, holding c
oat, Lieutenant General Byng, GOC Canadian Corps, standing on the lip of an 8,000lb mine exploded at a British training school at Wisques, France, 28 August 1916. Coordination of mines with attacks was a British weakness during 1915–1916 and Byng scaled down the use of mines at Vimy Ridge in April 1917. (Imperial War Museum Q4169).
Lieutenant Colonel Mike Watkins MBE lifts a bag of ammonal explosive from a 6,500lb mine charge, 65ft beneath the surface at Vimy Ridge, in early 1998 prior to removing the detonators and primers. It was one of three mines laid by 172 Tunnelling Company to support the Canadian Corps attack on 9 April 1917, but was not used because the Germans had blown a series of craters in the vicinity two weeks before. Mike Watkins was one of the most experienced explosives experts in the British army, but was tragically killed later in 1998 by a collapse that occured while attempting to access another of the many tunnelling systems under the Ridge. He is commemorated on a plaque near the entrance to the Grange subway. (The Durand Group).
A German electrical boring machine used for dugout construction. Large tunnelling machines were tried by the Germans and British but were not successful for long drives or deep mining. Both hand and mechanised drills and borers were used, however, especially in dugout construction. A lack of spoil removal in this photograph suggests that testing or training is in progress. The man on the right is controlling the speed of the motor. (Imperial War Museum Q55394).
Men of the German 148th Infantry Regiment in a tunnel 15m below ground in the Champagne area in 1917. It is a typical German accommodation and communication tunnel and is reminiscent of the Cornillet tunnel, in which over 300 Germans were trapped and poisoned on 19–20 May 1917 during the Third Battle of Champagne. Like the Cornillet system, these tunnels were electrically lit, with signals cables running along the roof, and a light railway truck. (Author).
‘To the last penny.’ A well-stocked canteen store, probably in the same tunnel system as the previous photograph. As well as such luxuries, tunnel systems might contain water, food and ammunition to enable survival for ten days. (Author).
The Grange Subway, one of twelve infantry communication tunnels prepared prior to the assault on Vimy Ridge in April 1917. Constructed by 172 Tunnelling Company, the subway was 6ft 6in high by 3ft 6in wide, enough for two men in full equipment to pass, 1,343yds long with 25ft of head cover. It was used by Princess Patricia’s Canadian Light Infantry to reach their jumping off trenches before zero on 9 April 1917 and also housed mortar emplacements, headquarters dugouts and a dressing station. It is seen here after restoration for opening to the public in 1936, when obscene graffiti was removed, and it remains open to the public today. (Author).
A German dugout, a posed and peaceful almost domestic scene on a postcard sent home by a soldier in 1917 and typical of the deep dugouts which became a major feature of German defences in the front line in the first half of 1916. (Author).
By contrast, a scene in a German dugout at 9m depth representing the mental and physical exhaustion after enemy bombardment had prevented sleep, rations or relief. By 1917 deep accommodation in the German front line was prohibited owing to the Allies’ ability to trap the garrisons underground using creeping barrages and mopping-up troops. (Author).
Tunnel and dugout excavations carried out by the Association for Battlefield Archaeology and Conservation (ABAC) in the Ypres Salient are shown in these three photographs. The flooded conditions ensure remarkable preservation of timber and other organic materials underground. Under the direction of local mining engineer Johan Vandewalle and historian Peter Barton, for over 15 years ABAC has built up considerable expertise in this potentially extremely hazardous activity and has a detailed database of over 350 First World War underground structures. Excavations are now closely controlled by the authorities.
Bunks in the main gallery of Martha House Dugout, 1996. The wire netting shows the impressions of sleeping British soldiers, although the dugout was still under construction when the area was recaptured by the Germans in April 1918. (Copyright Johan Vandewalle ABAC).
The 37ft timber-lined shaft to the Vampir dugout excavated by ABAC in 2008. The shafthead was double-timbered for protection against shell-fire. (Copyright Johan Vandewalle ABAC).
A stepped incline entrance to a British dugout system at Ravine Wood. Inclined entrances were vital for infantry accommodation and subways but were difficult to sink through the wet Flanders sand. Running into the dugout is the piping with which the dugout was pumped out by ABAC. (Copyright Johan Vandewalle ABAC).
Abbreviations
1/Pi 30 1st Company of the 30th Rhineland Pioneers
ANZAC Australian and New Zealand Army Corps
BEF British Expeditionary Force
cm Centimetres (1cm = 0.39in)
CO Commanding Officer
CRE Commander Royal Engineers
ft Feet (1ft = 0.30m)
GHQ General Headquarters
GS General Staff
GSO General Staff Officer
HSS German Army self-contained breathing apparatus (Heeres Sauerstoff Schutzgerät)
in Inches (1in = 2.54cm)
kg Kilogramme (2.2lb)
LAC Library and Archives Canada
lb Imperial pound (0.45kg)
LLR Line of least resistance
M Metres (1m = 3.28ft)
MG Machine Gun
MGC Machine Gun Corps
NA British National Archives, Kew
OC Officer Commanding
OP Observation Post
RE Royal Engineers
REL Royal Engineers Library
REM Royal Engineers Museum
RF Royal Fusiliers
SEM Service Électromécanique
SHAT French Army archives, Service Historique de la Défense, Département de l’armée de Terre
t Metric tonnes (1t = 0.98 imperial long ton)
TOCA Tunnellers’ Old Comrades Association
WD War Diary
yd Yards (1yd = 3ft = 0.91m)
Glossary
Ammonal Ammonium nitrate-based commercial blasting explosive, safer and more powerful than gunpowder, adopted in 1915 as the British standard mining explosive.
Camouflet Explosive charge intended to destroy an enemy tunnel, which is not of sufficient power to cause a crater.
Cheddite A blasting explosive adopted by the French for mining.
Chevaux-de-frise Crossed pointed iron stakes generally used with barbed wire for defensive purposes.
Clay-kicking Method of digging small tunnels quickly and silently through clay, imported into the British Army by sewer tunnellers.
Common mine Explosive charge which has just sufficient charge to form a crater on the surface.
Cordeau detonant Detonating cord used for simultaneous firing of large charges.
Countermine Tunnels dug to defend against enemy mines.
Demi-galerie Standard French mine gallery, dimensions 1.30 to 1.50m high by 1m wide
Firestep Raised step on the trench wall facing the enemy, which enables the defender to fire out of the trench.
Gaize Sandstone which comprises the Vauquois ridge.
Geophone Instrument used to magnify underground vibrations as sound waves.
Grafting tool Type of spade used for clay-kicking.
Guncotton Nitro-cellulose explosive used by the British Army for demolitions.
Gunpowder Traditional explosive comprising saltpetre, sulphur and charcoal, used for military mining until 1915.
Incline Sloped entrance to a tunnel used as an alternative to a vertical shaft.
Line of least resistance The distance of a mine to the surface, used to calculate whether it would form a crater.
Mine Explosive charge laid underground, or the tunnel in which that charge is laid.
Overcharged mine Explosive charge which has more than sufficient charge to form a crater on the surface and which forms in addition lips of debris.
Proto British self-contained breathing apparatus capable of lasting 45 m
inutes.
Push pick Tool used for working in clay.
Radius of rupture The globe around an explosive charge in which damage will be caused to mine workings.
Rameaux de combat French attack branch gallery measuring 0.80m by 0.65m.
Russian sap A shallow underground gallery which could be converted into a trench by breaking down the top cover.
Salvus British self-contained breathing apparatus capable of lasting 30 minutes.
Sap A trench dug towards a point to be attacked (sometimes used for a mine gallery).
Sapper Generic term for a military engineer, also the basic rank of a member of the Royal Engineers.
Seismomicrophone Electrical version of the geophone.
Spiling Sheet piling technique used for working in sandy ground.
Stollen German term for mine gallery or tunnel, also sometimes used for a tunnelled dugout.
Tamping The backfilling of a mine tunnel to prevent the force of the explosion being directed back down the tunnel in which it was laid.
Tramming Use of wheeled trolleys to remove spoil and carry forward explosives.
Transversal Defensive tunnel dug parallel to the front line trench, used for listening and as a starting point for listening and attack galleries, also called a lateral.
Tubbing Steel cylindrical sections used for sinking shafts in wet ground.
Westfalit Ammonium nitrate-based commercial blasting explosive and one of several brands adopted by the Germans.
Preface
Trench warfare during 1914 to 1918 was fought as much beneath the ground as above it. Tunnelling offered a means of bypassing the machine guns and field defences, while underground shelters provided a refuge from shells. The deep networks of tunnels were the secret domain of the men who created them and their mystery, and perhaps also the close-knit nature of miners, means that this work has remained little-known.