The Third Reich at War
Page 97
285 . Report in Boberach (ed.), Meldungen, IX. 3,175-8, also reprinted in Trus, ‘. . . vom Leid erl̈sen’, 138-41. See also Griech-Polelle, Bishop von Galen, 86-93; Burleigh, Death, 209-19; Karl Ludwig Rost, Sterilisation und Euthanasie im Film des ‘Dritten Reiches’: Nationalsozialistische Propaganda in ihrer Beziehung zu rassenhygienischen Massnahmen des NS-Staates (Berlin, 1984), 166-8; and Kurt Nowak, ‘Widerstand, Zustimmung, Hinnahme: Das Verhalten der Bev̈lkerung zur “Euthanasie” ’, in Norbert Frei (ed.), Medizin und Gesundheitspolitik in der NS-Zeit (Munich, 1991), 235-51.
286 . Lothar Gruchmann, ‘Euthanasie und Justiz im Dritten Reich’, VfZ 20 (1972), 235-79, at 278-9.
287 . Ganssm̈ller, Die Erbgesundheitspolitik, 173; Gruchmann, ‘Euthanasie’, 277.
288 . Burleigh, Death, 176-80, overstates the case against the Catholic Church; Friedlander, The Origins, 111-12, takes it more or less as read and credits public opinion rather than the Churches; Griech-Polelle, Bish op von Galen, 92-3, sums up the arguments judiciously, pointing out that Galen’s sermons were expressing in religious terms what public opinion felt more generally.
289 . Excellent analysis in Longerich, Politik, 241-2.
290 . Thus the arguments in Omer Bartov, The Eastern Front 1941-1945: German Troops and the Barbarization of Warfare (London, 1985); and idem, Hitler’s Army, dating these processes from the invasion of the Soviet Union onwards; see the critique in Rossino, Hitler Strikes Poland, 191, and the account of the many works that assume that the German war of racial extermination in the east only began in 1941 in B̈hler, Auftakt, 9-16.
291 . Tadeusz Piotrowski, Poland’s Holocaust: Ethnic Strife, Collaboration with Occupying Forces, and Genocide in the Second Republic, 1918-1947 (Jefferson, N.C., 1998); B̈hler, Auftakt, 241-7.
292 . Berndt and Strecker (eds.), Polen; Richard J. Evans (ed.), Kneipengespr̈che im Kaiserreich: Die Stimmungsberichte der Hamburger Politischen Polizei 1892-1914 (Hamburg, 1989), 361-83.
293 . Hosenfeld, ‘Ich versuche’, 292 (letter to son, 23 November 1939).
294 . Johannes Ḧrter (ed.), Ein deutscher General an der Ostfront: Die Briefe und Tagebücher des Gotthard Heinrici 1941/42 (Essen, 2001), 56 (letter to wife, 22 April 1941).
295 . Ibid., 56 (letter to wife, 25 April 1941).
296 . Ibid., 57 (letter to family, 30 April 1941).
297 . Ibid.
298 . Rossino, Hitler Strikes Poland, 121-43.
299 . Evans, The Coming of the Third Reich, 61.
300 . See Rossino, Hitler Strikes Poland, arguing against J̈rgen F̈rster, ‘Jewish Policies of the German Military, 1939-1942’, in Asher Cohen et al. (eds.), The Shoah and the War (New York, 1992), 53-71, at 56, and Umbreit, Deutsche Miliẗrverwaltungen, 137, 273.
Chapter 2. FORTUNES OF WAR
1 . Roger Moorhouse, Killing Hitler: The Third Reich and the Plots against the F̈hrer (London, 2006), 36-58, is the most recent account. See also Peter Hoffmann, Hitler’s Personal Security (London, 1979), 105-11.
2 . Moorhouse, Killing Hitler, 50-53; Heinz Ḧhne, The Order of the Death’s Head: The Story of Hitler’s SS (London, 1972 [1966]), 264-6.
3 . Moorhouse, Killing Hitler, 43-50; Kershaw, Hitler, II. 271-5.
4 . Boberach (ed.), Meldungen, III. 449: Bericht zur innenpolitischen Lage Nr. 15, 13 November 1939.
5 . Shirer, Berlin Diary, 194-5 (9 November 1939).
6 . Alan Bullock, Hitler: A Study in Tyranny (London, 1952), 522-3, claimed the Gestapo was responsible, as did Peter Padfield, Himmler: Reichsf̈hrer-SS (London, 1990), 283. See however Anton Hoch, ‘Das Attentat auf Hitler im M̈nchener B̈rgerbr̈ukeller 1939’, VfZ 17 (1969), 383-413, and especially Lothar Gruchmann (ed.), Autobiographie eines Attenẗters: Johann Georg Elser: Aussage zum Sprengstoffanschlag im B̈rgerbr̈ukeller, M̈nchen, am 8. November 1939 (Stuttgart, 1970).
7 . Moorhouse, Killing Hitler, 58.
8 . Hans-Adolf Jacobsen (ed.), Dokumente zur Vorgeschichte des Westfeldzuges 1939-1940 (G̈ttingen, 1956), 5-7. For the generals’ previous caution, see Evans, The Third Reich in Power, 633, 642, 668-70.
9 . International Military Tribunal, Nuremberg: ND 789-PS, 572-80: see Evans, The Third Reich in Power, 892.
10 . Fedor von Bock, Generalfeldmarschall Fedor von Bock: Zwischen Pflicht und Verweigerung: Das Kriegstagebuch (ed. Klaus Gerbet, Munich, 1995), 78-9 (23 November 1939).
11 . For the confrontation of 1938, see Evans, The Third Reich in Power, 668-71; for the arguments of 1939-40 and the revival of the plot, see Kershaw, Hitler, II. 262-71, and Johannes Ḧrter, Hitlers Heerf̈hrer: Die deutschen Oberbefehlshaber im Krieg gegen die Sowjetunion 1941/42 (Munich, 2007), 163-71.
12 . Tooze, The Wages of Destruction, 331-43. An exhaustive account of the airplane building programme is provided by Lutz Budrass, Flugzeugindustrie und Luftr̈stung in Deutschland (D̈sseldorf, 1998). The supply situation was a constant concern in Halder’s diary during these months (Halder, Kriegstagebuch, I, passim).
13 . Rolf-Dieter M̈ller, ‘The Mobilization of the German Economy for Hitler’s War Aims’, GSWW V/I. 407-786, at 407-11; Tooze, The Wages of Destruction, 343-8.
14 . M̈ller, ‘The Mobilization’, 453-85.
15 . Evans, The Third Reich in Power, 364-5; for Todt see ibid., 322-5.
16 . Weinberg, A World at Arms, 100-103; Catherine Merridale, Ivan’s War: The Red Army 1939-1945 (London, 2005), 67-70. For German policy, see Gerd R. Ueberscḧr, Hitler und Finnland 1938-1941 (Wiesbaden, 1978).
17 . Merridale, Ivan’s War, 44-7, 57-60, 67-71.
18 . Weinberg, A World at Arms, 105-7; John Erickson, The Soviet High Command (London, 1962), 541-52; Tomas Ries, Cold Will: The Defence of Finland (London, 1988); Geoffrey Roberts, Stalin’s Wars: From World War to Cold War, 1939-1953 (London, 2006), 46-55; Chris Bellamy, Absolute War: Soviet Russia in the Second World War: A Modern History (London, 2007), 69-98.
19 . Thomas K. Derry, ‘Norway’, in Stuart J. Woolf (ed.), European Fascism (London, 1968), 217-30, at 217-24.
20 . Derry, ‘Norway’, 224-6; Weinberg, A World at Arms, 114-15; Oddvar K. Hoidal, Quisling: A Study in Treason (Oslo, 1989); Carl-Axel Gemzell, Raeder, Hitler und Skandinavien (Lund, 1965). For Quisling’s visit to Berlin in December 1939 and Raeder’s key role in prewar planning, see Hans-Martin Ottmer, ‘Weser̈bung’: Der deutsche Angriff auf D̈nemark und Norwegen im April 1940 (Munich, 1994), 24-6, 3-17.
21 . Bernd Stegemann, ‘Operation Weser̈bung’, in GSWW II. 206-19, at 211-12; Ottmer, ‘Weser̈bung’, 67-79; Hubatsch (ed.), Hitlers Weisungen, 47-50.
22 . Stegemann, ‘Operation Weser̈bung’, 207-11; Ottmer, ‘Weser̈bung’, 79-131.
23 . Vidkun Quisling, Quisling ruft Norwegen! Reden und Aufs̈tze (Munich, 1942), 96-7, 102, 105, 137.
24 . Stegemann, ‘Operation Weser̈bung’, 212-15.
25 . Weinberg, A World at Arms, 119-21; Shirer, Berlin Diary, 254 (4 May 1940).
26 . Meier-Welcker, Aufzeichnungen, 54 (21 March 1940).
27 . Roy Jenkins, Churchill (London, 2001), 573-84.
28 . Peter Clarke, Hope and Glory: Britain 1900-1990 (London, 1996), 192-6.
29 . Jacobsen (ed.), Dokumente, 64-5, 155-6; Hans-Adolf Jacobsen, Fall Gelb: Der Kampf um den deutschen Operationsplan zur Westoffensive 1940 (Wiesbaden, 1957); Karl-Heinz Frieser, Blitzkrieg-Legende: Der Westfeldzug 1940 (Munich, 1996 [1995]), 15-70 for the short-term, improvised nature of the plan, 71-116 for arguments about it within the military hierarchy.
30 . Shirer, Berlin Diary, 275-6 (20 May 1940); Hans Umbreit, ‘The Battle for Hegemony in Western Europe’, in GSWW II. 227-326, at 270-80; Julian Jackson, The Fall of France: The Nazi Invasion of 1940 (Oxford, 2003), 9-39; Ernest R. May, Strange Victory: Hitler’s Conquest of France (New York, 2000).
31 . Shirer, Berlin Diary, 276-9 (20 May 1940).
32 . Weinberg, A World at Arms, 122-6.
33 . Umbreit, ‘The Battle’, 37; Frieser, Blitzkrieg-Legende, 428.
34 . Jackson, The Fall of France, 37-9; Frieser, Blitzkrieg-Legende, 135.
35 . Bock, Zwischen Pflicht und Verweigerung, 101 (24 February 1940).
36 . Jackson, The Fall of France, 42-7; Umbreit, ‘The Battle’, 278-304; vivid narrative in Tooze, The Wages of Destruction, 374-9; details of the amphetamine use in Werner Pieper (ed.), Nazis on Speed: Drogen im 3. Reich (Loherbach, 2002), 325-30; the best recent critical account in Frieser, Blitzkrieg-Legende, 173-361.
37 . Jackson, The Fall of France, 9-12 (quote on 10).
38 . Ibid., 58-62.
39 . Ibid., 85-94, gives a judicious account of these much-contested events; see also Kershaw, Hitler, II. 295-6.
40 . Bock, Zwischen Pflicht und Verweigerung, 135 (26 May 1940), 140 (30 May 1940); Hans-Adolf Jacobsen, D̈nkirchen: Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des Westfeldzuges 1940 (Neckargem̈nd, 1958), 70-122, 203, and idem (ed.), Dokumente zum Westfeldzug 1940 (G̈ttingen, 1960), 114-46, both pinning the responsibility on Rundstedt; Frieser, Blitzkrieg-Legende, 363-93, emphasizes Hitler’s role.
41 . Bock, Zwischen Pflicht und Verweigerung, 143 (2 June 1940).
42 . Jackson, The Fall of France, 94-100.
43 . Ibid., 101-6 (quote on 105).
44 . Ibid., 107-73; Frieser, Blitzkrieg-Legende, 399-409; May, Strange Victory, 448-9, arguing for the buoyancy of French military morale in the early stages of the invasion.
45 . Irène N’mirovsky, Suite Fran¸aise (London, 2007 [2004]), 50.
46 . Ibid., 42.
47 . Jackson, The Fall of France, 174-82; Hanna Diamond, Fleeing Hitler: France 1940 (Oxford, 2007).
48 . Meier-Welcker, Aufzeichnungen, 74 (12 June 1940).
49 . Shirer, Berlin Diary, 328-32 (21 June, 1940).
50 . Jackson, The Fall of France, 232; the best overall survey remains the same author’s France: The Dark Years 1940-1944 (Oxford, 2001).
51 . Frieser, Blitzkrieg-Legende, 409-35.
52 . Albert Speer, Inside the Third Reich: Memoirs (London, 1971 [1970]), 170-2 (also quoted in Lynn Nicholas, The Rape of Europa: The Fate of Europe’s Treasures in the Third Reich and the Second World War (New York, 1994), 118).
53 . Shirer, Berlin Diary, 260-63 (10-11 May 1940).
54 . Lore Walb, Ich, die Alte - ich, die Junge: Konfrontation mit meinen Tageb̈chern 1933-1945 (Berlin, 1997), 179 (21 May 1940).
55 . Boberach (ed.), Meldungen, IV. 1,163 (23 May 1940).
56 . Ibid., 1,189 (30 May 1940), 1,261 (17 June 1940).
57 . Ibid., 1,274-5 (20 June 1940).
58 . Hosenfeld, ‘Ich versuche’, 294 (letter to his wife 25 November 1939).
59 . Ibid., 356 (11 June 1940, letter to son).
60 . Luise Solmitz, Tagebuch (Staatsarchiv der Freien- und Hansestadt Hamburg, 622-1, 111511-13: Familie Solmitz; transcripts in Forschungsstelle f̈r Zeitgeschichte, Hamburg), XI. 551, 560, 563, 565-6 (12 June 1940, 17 June 1940, 21 June 1940).
61 . Gerhard L. Weinberg, ‘Hitler and England, 1933-1945: Pretense and Reality’, German Studies Review, 8 (1988), 299-309, argues that Hitler was never interested in a deal with Britain; see also Weinberg, A World at Arms, 89-95.
62 . Frances Donaldson, Edward VIII (London, 1974), 191-206, 327-34, 358-77; Michael Bloch, Operation Willi: The Plot to Kidnap the Duke of Windsor, July 1940 (London, 1984); Walter Schellenberg, The Memoirs of Hitler’s Spymaster (London, 2006 [1956]).
63 . Weinberg, A World at Arms, 118.
64 . Charles S. Thomas, The German Navy in the Nazi Era (London, 1990), 191.
65 . Shirer, Berlin Diary, 355, 358 (19-20 July 1940).
66 . Walb, Ich, die Alte, 185 (17 June 1940).
67 . Domarus (ed.), Hitler, III. 2,062 (19 July 1940), Kershaw, Hitler, II. 301-8. For the idea that a separate peace would have saved the British Empire, see John Charmley, Churchill: The End of Glory: A Political Biography (London, 1993), 422-32.
68 . Karl Klee, Das Unternehmen ‘Seel̈we’: Die geplante deutsche Landung in England 1940 (G̈ttingen, 1958); idem, Dokumente zum Unternehmen ‘Seel̈we’: Die geplante deutsche Landung in England 1940 (G̈ttingen, 1959), both arguing that the problem was caused by lack of advance planning.
69 . Walter Schellenberg, Invasion 1940: The Nazi Invasion Plan for Britain (London, 2000), esp. 1-114 (‘Gestapo Handbook’).
70 . Richard J. Overy, The Battle (London, 2000), 60-63.
71 . Ibid., esp. 161-2.
72 . Ibid., 53-4, 80.
73 . Tooze, The Wages of Destruction, 249-50, 400-401.
74 . Shirer, Berlin Diary, 377 (17 August 1940).
75 . Ulrich Steinhilfer and Peter Osborne, Spitfire on My Tail: A View from the Other Side (Bromley, 1989), 279 (19 August 1940).
76 . Ibid., 289 (31 August). The original expression was Horridoh!
77 . Domarus (ed.), Hitler, III. 2,086 (4 September 1940).
78 . Ibid., 2,072 (1 August 1940, Directive no. 17); for the contrary view, see Kershaw, Hitler, II. 309; good discussion in Horst Boog, ‘The Strategic Air War in Europe and Air Defence of the Reich’, in GSWW VII. 9-458, at 357-67.
79 . Overy, The Battle, 90-96; Klaus A. Maier, ‘The Battle of Britain’, in GSWW II. 374-407.
80 . Overy, The Battle, 90-96; Alfred Price, Blitz on Britain (Shepperton, 1977); Tooze, The Wages of Destruction, 447-8.
81 . Steinhilfer and Osborne, Spitfire, 295 (17 September 1940).
82 . Ibid., 319 (letter to father, 19 October 1940).
83 . Halder, Kriegstagebuch, II. 128 (7 October 1940).
84 . Ibid., 99 (14 September 1940).
85 . Walb, Ich, die Alte, 197 (10 September 1940).
86 . F. Harry Hinsley, British Intelligence in the Second World War (5 vols., London, 1979-90),I. 316-18, 523-48.
87 . Walb, Ich, die Alte, 200 (3 October 1940).
88 . Meier-Welcker, Aufzeichnungen, 101 (31 December 1940).
89 . Overy, The Battle, 97-135.
90 . Quoted in Paul Preston, Franco: A Biography (London, 1993), 397-8.
91 . Kershaw, Hitler, II. 329-30; Paul Preston, ‘Franco and Hitler: The Myth of Hendaye 1940’, Contemporary European History, 1 (1992), 1-16;idem, Franco, 399.
92 . Richard Bosworth, Mussolini’s Italy: Life under the Dictatorship 1915-1945 (London, 2005), 415-20.
93 . Denis Mack Smith, Mussolini (London, 1983 [1981]), 269-91; Umbreit, ‘The Battle’, 304-13.
94 . Kershaw, Hitler, II. 331.
95 . Detlef Vogel, ‘German Intervention in the Balkans’, in GSWW III. 451-55; Gerhard Schreiber, ‘Germany, Italy and South-east Europe: From Political and Economic Hegemony to Military Aggression’, ibid., 305-448 (statistics on 448); Smith, Mussolini, 298- 302; Martin Clark, Modern Italy 1871-1982 (Harlow, 1984), 285-8.
96 . Dear (ed.), The Oxford Companion to World War II, 148-9; Smith, Mussolini, 308.
97 . Clark, Modern Italy, 286.
98 . Smith, Mussolini, 310-11; Dear (ed.), The Oxford Companion to World War II, 245-7.
99 . Bernd Stegemann, ‘The Italo-German Conduct of War in the Mediterranean and North Africa’, in GSWW III. 643-754, at 673-80.
100 . Halder, Kriegstagebuch, II. 377 (23 April 1941), III. 48 (6 July 1941).
101 . Dear (ed.), The Oxford Companion to World War II, 748-9, 992-4; Weinberg, A World at Arms, 211-15, 222-5, 361-3; Stegemann, ‘The Italo-German Conduct of War’, 680-754; Reinhard Stumpf, ‘The War in the Mediterranean Area 1942-1943: Operations in North Africa and the Central Mediterranean’, in GSWW VI. 631-840, at 631-54 and 661-748.
102 . Martin Gilbert, The Holocaust: The Jewish Tragedy (London, 1987 [1986]), 578; idem, The Routledge Atlas of the Holocaust (London, 2002 [1982]), Maps 59, 188; Robert Satloff, Among the Righteous: Lost Stories from the Holocaust’s Long Reach into Arab Lands (New York, 2006).
103 . Andreas Hillgruber (ed.), Staatsm̈nner und Diplomaten bei Hitler: Vertrauliche Aufzeichnungen ̈ber Unterredungen mit Vertretern des Auslandes (2 vols., Frankfurt am Main, 1967-70), I. 664-6.
104 . Jeffrey Herf, The Jewish Enemy: Nazi Propaganda during World War II and the Holocaust (London, 2006), 76.
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105 . Tooze, The Wages of Destruction, 381-2.
106 . Dear (ed.), The Oxford Companion to World War II, 744-5; Schreiber, ‘Germany’, 305-448, Weinberg, A World at Arms, 195-6; J̈rgen F̈rster, ‘Germany’s Acquisition of Allies in South-east Europe’, in GSWW IV. 386-428, at 386; Friedl̈nder, The Years of Extermination, 166-9; Randolph L. Braham (ed.), The Tragedy of Romanian Jewry (New York, 1994); Mihail Sebastian, ‘Voller Entsetzen, aber nicht verzweifelt’: Tageb̈cher 1935-44 (ed. Edward Kanterian, Berlin, 2005). For Romanian fascism and antisemitism, see Leon Volovici, Nationalist Ideology and Antisemitism: The Case of Romanian Intellectuals in the 1930s (Oxford, 1991) (esp. Stephen Fischer-Galati, ‘The Legacy of AntiSemitism’, 1-28); Stanley G. Payne, A History of Fascism 1914-45 (London, 1995), 134-8, 391-7; solid narrative of events in Keith Hitchins, Rumania 1866-1947 (Oxford, 1994), 376-471 (esp. 451-71). By far the best account of Antonescu is now Dennis Deletant, Hitler’s Forgotten Ally: Ion Antonescu and His Regime, Romania 1940-44 (London, 2006): for a detailed narrative of the events recounted above, see ibid., 8-68. The slaughterhouse incident is recounted in Robert St John, Foreign Correspondent (London, 1960), 180.
107 . Dear (ed.), The Oxford Companion to World War II, 1,011-2.
108 . Kershaw, Hitler, II. 360-63; Vogel, ‘German Intervention’, 451-85.
109 . Ibid., 497-526; Mark Mazower, Inside Hitler’s Greece: The Experience of Occupation 1941-44 (London, 1993), 1-8, 15-18; Peter Calvocoressi and Guy Wint, Total War: Causes and Courses of the Second World War (Harmondsworth, 1974 [1972]), 154-60 (a little outdated, but still valuable); Weinberg, A World at Arms, 218-22.
110 . Dear (ed.), The Oxford Companion to World War II, 213-15; Vogel, ‘German Intervention’, 527-55.
111 . Dear (ed.), The Oxford Companion to World War II, 213-15.
112 . P̈ppel, Heaven and Hell, 67.
113 . Quoted in Mazower, Inside Hitler’s Greece, 23-4.
114 . Ibid., 23-32; Rainer Eckert, Vom ‘Fall Marita’ zur ‘Wirtschaftlichen Sonderaktion’: Die deutsche Besatzungspolitik in Griechenland vom 6. April 1941 bis zur Kriegswende im Februar/M̈rz 1943 (Frankfurt am Main, 1992), 85-142.
115 . Mazower, Inside Hitler’s Greece, 32-52.