The Dangerous Book for Boys
Page 26
Bark: Pinkish brown in young trees, turning white with black patches.
Leaves: Oval with a long pointed tip, serrated around the edges.
Fruit: Catkins (small twig). Shed lots of papery winged seeds in autumn, yellowy in color.
BEECH (FAGUS SYLVATICA)
An impressive tree, which can grow up to 140 ft (42.5 m), with an enormous spreading crown. Dominant in chalky soils. Beeches survive for centuries, growing immense, twisting trunks. The wood is extremely hard and used in school carpentry benches.
The American beech (FAGUS GRANDIFOLIA) is found from Nova Scotia, south to Florida, and west into Texas.
Bark: The trunk is smooth and grey, branching out horizontally.
Leaves: Oval and pointy with clear veins at the edges. Spring—yellowy, summer—dark green, autumn—a rich brown. Twigs are brown with narrow pointed buds.
Fruit: A hard glossy brown nut in a hairy shell. The inner nut can be eaten and tastes delicious.
HORSE CHESTNUT (AESCULUS HIPPOCASTANUM)
A very familiar suburban tree, but not a native. Introduced from southeast Europe and England. The seed is called a conker. Can grow up to 80 ft (24 m).
Bark: Orangey-brown.
Leaves: Green oval, with an unmistakable spread.
Fruit: Dark, sticky buds, beginning to open in April, forming green, spiny fruit cases toward the end of summer. These fall in September, the shells splitting to reveal brown nuts.
ASH (FRAXINUS EXCELSIOR)
The trunk is often long and straight. The white ash that is native to North America is used to make baseball bats because of its durability and give. Usually 70–80 ft (21–24.5 m), but can grow up to 140 ft (42.5 m).
Bark: Smooth and gray, long cracks with age. The twigs are sticky, and have big black buds.
Leaves: Pinnate (meaning “pairs either side of stem”). Green, small, and pointy.
Fruit: In October, it sheds seeds that resemble a long, narrow, brown wing.
Extraordinary Stories—Part Five
Robert the Bruce (1274–1329)
AFTER A long and successful reign, King Alexander III of Scotland died in 1286 after falling from his horse. He left no surviving children and only one four-year-old granddaughter, Margaret, the daughter of the Norwegian king. Rather than see the realm splinter into factions, the Scottish lords proclaimed her queen, despite her youth. The King of England, Edward I, intended to marry her to his son, himself a baby at this stage. Sadly, Margaret died at the age of eight before even making it back to Scotland.
There were then thirteen claimants to the Scottish throne. Edward I of England was asked to adjudicate between them and he came north with an army to do so. In the end he chose John Balliol, who had a direct line back to King David I of Scotland (1124–1153). Robert the Bruce was the next strongest contender for the throne. He had a near identical claim back to David I, but he seems to have been an extra-ordinarily charismatic leader and practical politician, which Balliol was not. Balliol had English estates and Edward assumed he would not resist the annexation of Scotland after his coronation. However, Balliol did just that. He refused to give judicial or feudal authority to Edward, or to acknowledge his superiority in any form. Edward’s attempt to gain Scotland by stealth and subtlety had come to nothing.
To put this period in historical context, it should be remembered that the great eras of expansion were still centuries away. The Elizabethan period was from 1558–1603. England and Scotland would not have a joint throne until James I and the beginning of the seventeenth century. England in the fourteenth century was feudal and bleak. Though cathedrals and universities soared in her cities, every aspect of life was ruled by the land-owning class and the Church of Rome. At the secular head was Edward I, King of England, a hard man intent on unifying his realm. He had already conquered Wales, naming his son as Prince. (There is an old story that when the Welsh were unhappy at the thought of an English prince to rule them, Edward said he would give them a prince who spoke no word of English. They cheered this, but then he held up his baby son to them . . .)
Robert the Bruce
Robert the Bruce saw the reigns of two very different English kings. The first was Edward I, a man who has on his tomb the words HIC EST EDWARDUS PRIMUS SCOTTORUM MALLEUS—Here lies King Edward, the Hammer of the Scots. In his younger years, Edward travelled as far as Jerusalem and Tunisia on the Crusades. After returning home, he conquered Wales, borrowing money from English Jews to do it. His solution to the mounting interest on his debts was to have 300 heads of Jewish families executed and the rest exiled in 1290.
When Edward turned his gaze on Scotland, hard years came to that country. When Balliol resisted Edward’s authority, he knew war would follow and prepared an army to invade the north of England. Edward had also expected his support against the age-old enemy, France, but Balliol actually made a pact with France against him.
In a cold rage, Edward drove north with his professional soldiers, smashing all resistance with extraordinary savagery. At Berwick, his army butchered many thousands of men, women and children, killing for two days. The Scots destroyed crops and livestock, starving his men while they launched attacks into Northumberland. The north bled in thousands of skirmishes and murders. Edward captured the “Stone of Destiny” from Scone, on which all Scottish monarchs had been crowned, taking it back to Westminster. It was placed in “King Edward’s Chair” (named after Edward the Confessor) in Westminster Abbey. All British monarchs since that time are crowned while sitting on that chair, including Elizabeth II in 1953. The actual stone was given back to the Scottish people in 1996, though it will be returned for future coronations, as the thrones are linked in a “united kingdom.”
Balliol was forced to abdicate at Kincardine Castle, only five months after he had gone to war with Edward. He spent three years in the Tower of London before he was allowed to go to the estates in France. Edward chose Berwick as the place where he would receive a formal oath of homage from 2,000 Scottish nobles that year. Robert the Bruce was one of those who swore fealty in 1296.
The Scots rebelled again and years of conflict followed—a turbulent period for Scotland that produced, among others, William Wallace, a romantic rebel against the English king. His life inspired Walter Scott to write Exploits and Death of William Wallace, the Hero of Scotland and he was also the inspiration for the film Braveheart in 1995. Wallace and Robert the Bruce did not always see eye to eye. Robert the Bruce was a better diplomat and Wallace supported John Balliol’s right to be king of Scotland, saying his abdication was achieved under duress. Wallace achieved some extraordinary victories against the English armies, even when heavily outnumbered, as at the Battle of Stirling Bridge in 1297. For that action, Wallace was knighted by Robert the Bruce and named “Guardian of the kingdom of Scotland and leader of its armies.”
However, in 1298, Wallace saw his army broken at the Battle of Falkirk. Wallace resigned as Guardian and the post was then shared between Robert the Bruce and John Comyn, another of the original thirteen with a claim to the throne. Wallace escaped and spent time in France while Robert the Bruce made peace with Edward in 1302, staying at court in Carlisle. All the leading Scots were forced to swear fealty to Edward again in 1304—except for Wallace. He remained at large for another year, a popular hero wherever rebels met. He was finally caught in 1305 and was hanged, drawn, quartered and beheaded at Smithfield Market in London along with his brother, their heads placed on London Bridge. It must have seemed like the end of Scottish independence, but Edward was growing old and sick and his son would never be the man to rule the hard lands of the north. Edward II lacked charisma and personal authority. He would be one of the worst kings England ever had.
Robert the Bruce met with John Comyn to put the case for one of them becoming king of Scotland and breaking faith with Edward I. Though Comyn agreed at first, he announced the treachery in letters to King Edward. Warned by a friend, Robert was forced to ride from Carlisle to Scotland before he c
ould be caught and executed. He arranged a meeting with John Comyn in the sanctuary of a Scottish church and he and his men killed Comyn there, in revenge for the betrayal. Robert the Bruce was later excommunicated for this act by Pope Clement V.
He was crowned King of Scotland by his own mistress in 1306 at Scone—though not with the famous stone under his feet. His reign did not start well, with a string of defeats against the English forces in Scotland. Three of his brothers were killed by Edward, his wife was taken prisoner, and he was forced into hiding. The legend is well known that when he was on the run and forced to take shelter in a cave, he saw a spider trying to complete a web and failing, over and over. As Robert the Bruce watched, it tried again and succeeded. The example gave him hope.
In 1307, Robert the Bruce began a new rebellion and Edward I took an army north to crush him. Edward was old and exhausted, and as he reached the borders of England and Scotland, he was taken ill at a place called Burgh-by-Sands, where he could actually see Scotland across the Solway Firth. He told his son not to entomb him in Westminster, but instead to boil the flesh off his bones and then carry the bones in every future battle until the Scots were destroyed. His son failed in this, as he failed his father in almost every way. He faced problems of rebellious lords in England and returned there, leaving Robert the Bruce alone to consolidate his position.
In 1308, the tides of war changed for Robert the Bruce. He fought the Comyns first to establish his claim and then had the French king recognize his right to rule Scotland, which was a great aid to his cause. Considering that Edward II had married the French king’s daughter Isabella, it was an astonishing feat of diplomacy. In fairness, the marriage could not have been a happy one. One of Edward II’s first orders as King was to bring his lover, Piers Gaveston, back from France, where his father had banished him.
Robert the Bruce was also aided by Sir James Douglas, known as “The Black Douglas.” Under his command, the Scottish clan forces drove out the English garrisons Edward I had left and invaded the north of England twice in 1311, laying the land waste.
Edward II had no choice but to respond. He took a large army north against the forces under Bruce. An absolutely crucial battle followed—Bannockburn, still seen today as one of the classic dates in Scottish history. The Scottish forces were badly outnumbered and facing professional soldiers well armed with crossbow, longbow, sword, ax, pike, and horse. The lie of the land played a part, as the English found themselves hemmed in by marsh ground and bog, negating their numerical superiority. The battle itself took place over two days, with the most serious clash on June 24, 1314. The English cavalry charge was ineffective on that ground and was beaten back. The Scottish advance rolled over the English archers and the victory was complete when Edward II fled the field, his nerve deserting him.
Robert the Bruce would go on to many other victories over the next decade. The Irish lords even offered him the throne of Ireland. Robert sent his brother Edward, who was crowned High King of Ireland in 1316.
In England, Edward II managed to sire two boys and two girls with Isabella, despite his inclinations. He lacked the ruthlessness and tactical skill of his father, and Robert the Bruce was laying waste to cities and towns and sacking monasteries as far south as York. Edward II lost power to a committee of his own lords, lost his throne to his wife and eldest son and, after being held prisoner and tortured, was eventually put to death in 1327 by being impaled on a length of red-hot iron, considered at the time to be a suitable comment on his lifestyle and failures.
It would be Edward II’s son, Edward III, who would sign a peace treaty in 1328 that recognized Scotland as an independent nation and Robert the Bruce as King. It was the crowning moment of Robert’s life and he died the following year in 1329.
As he signed the treaty, Edward III was only sixteen and under his mother’s legal power. When he reached his majority, he repudiated the treaty. English kings continued to call themselves rulers of Scotland, but Scotland did remain independent until 1603, when James VI of Scotland became James I of England and joined the thrones. Unlike his hopeless father, Edward III ruled successfully and wisely for no less than fifty years.
Robert the Bruce’s final instruction was that his heart be taken to the Holy Land. It has since been returned and is buried in Melrose Abbey in Roxburghshire in the east of Scotland.
The Game of Chess
CHESS IS AN ANCIENT board game that came to Europe along the silk route from China and India. It is a game of war and tactical advantage, played by generals and princes down through the ages. Its exact origins are unknown, though the pieces may be based on the ancient formations of Indian armies.
It is a game for two people, played on a board of sixty-four alternately black and white squares. As with most of the best games, it is easy to play badly and hard to play well.
THE PIECES
Both sides have sixteen pieces: 8 pawns, 2 knights, 2 bishops, 2 castles (also known as rooks), 1 queen and 1 king.
The object of the game is to capture (checkmate) the opponent’s king. White has the first move and then both players take it in turns until one triumphs.
SETTING UP THE BOARD
There should be a white square in the right-hand corner when placing the board. The pieces are arranged in two lines, facing each other. The pawns protect the rear line, which is arranged in the following sequence:
1. Rook; 2. Knight; 3. Bishop; 4. Queen; 5. King; 6. Bishop; 7. Knight; 8 Rook.
The queen always goes on her own color—the black queen on the black square in the middle. The white queen will go on the corresponding white square.
MOVEMENT AND VALUES
Each type of piece moves in a different way.
Pawns are the infantry and move forward, one square at a time—except on the first move, where they are allowed to lurch two squares forward in a fit of martial enthusiasm. They capture diagonally, to the left or right. They are the least valuable pieces, but the only ones that can be promoted. (Value: 1 point.)
The Knights are the cavalry: mobile and difficult to stop. They move in an “L” shape of “two squares and one” in any direction. In the diagram, all the black pawns around the knight can be attacked. Crucially, the knight is the only piece that can jump over others in their path. Even if a rook blocked the way to one of the pawns above, the knight could still take the pawn. (Value: 3 points.)
Knight
Bishops are the elephants. They move along the diagonals, though they are limited to white or black squares only. They work well together, covering both color squares. They also do well in distance attacks, like machine guns or searchlights. (Value: 3 points.)
Bishop
Castles (Rooks). These are the chariot forces. They control the straight lines on the board and are particularly useful in the end-game and for castling. (Value: 5 points.)
Rook/Castle
The Queen. This is the most powerful piece on the board and can move in any direction, without limit. (Value: 8 points.)
Queen
The King is the most important piece on the board. It can only move one square at a time, but in any direction. It can move two squares while castling. It cannot move into check. (Value: Game.)
King
THE GAME
Having the first move is an advantage and most games tend to be won by white. Classically, black plays defensively, countering white’s aggressive moves and taking advantage of mistakes.
Capturing. One player removes an enemy piece from the board by landing on the same square. With the exception of a king, any piece can take any other. A king is restricted by the fact that it cannot move into check, so a king can never take another king. Pawns can only capture diagonally, moving forward.
Check/Checkmate. If a piece threatens the king, so that in theory it could take the king, it is called “check.” The king must either move out of check, block the check, or the attacking piece must be taken. If none of these are possible, the king has been caught—a checkmate,
which is a corruption of the Arabic for “The king is dead.”
Castling. After the knight and bishop have moved, the king can shift two squares either left or right, with the rook taking the inside square.
Castling Kingside
Castling Queenside
En Passant. This is an unusual form of pawn capture that is now common practice. When a pawn has moved down the board, it looks possible to avoid it by moving the opposing pawn two squares up. “En passant” allows pawn capture as if only one square had been moved.
En Passant
In theory, the game can be split into thirds—the opening, the middle game, and the endgame.
OPENING
The idea here is to get out all your main pieces, known as “developing,” before castling your king to safety. The center of the board (the four central squares) is important to control. For example, a knight in the center has up to eight possible moves. In a corner, he may only have two.
Some openings have names and long histories, such as “The King’s Indian Defense” and “The Sicilian.” There are many books on openings, but you should find one you like and stick to it, playing it often to understand it better. As an example, we’ll show the moves of the King’s Indian.
Remember, pawns cannot go backward, so move them carefully as you develop. Link them into pawn chains, one protecting the next. Try to avoid leaving a piece “en prise,” or undefended.
THE MIDDLE GAME
Your pieces should be developed and your king safe. This is where you start to attack.
Advance your pieces to positions that help control the board and capture the enemy units. Even at this stage, you should be looking for opportunities to capture the enemy king, but don’t overextend your pieces. If you want to move to a square with one piece, make sure it is protected by another.