CHAPTER 9: CRETACEOUS BLOOM AND DOOM
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CHAPTER 10: CENOZOIC REFLECTIONS
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POSTSCRIPT: THE BUGGY UNIVERSE HYPOTHESIS
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Index
Page numbers in italics refer to figures. The abbreviation “pl.” refers to color plates.
abdomen, xi, 11, 60, 76, 80, 85, pl. 8
abundance, 9, 178–79
Aculeata, 160
adaptations: to extreme environments, 3; hypermetamorphic, 143–45; novel, 113
adaptive radiation, 145, 156, 180–81
agriculture, 182
air dragons, 87, 89–90, 94, 99, 113, 131, 136
algae, 47–48, 51, 106, 108, 126, 174–76
alkaloids, 121, 159, 206n15
allergies, 167–8
Allosaurus, 134–35, 209n4
Alvarez, Luis, 92, 168
Amazon: basin, 171, 176, 184, 186; River, 155, 171; societies, 164
amino acids, 24, 188
amphibians, 3, 18, 94, 120–21, 126, 173, 181, 203n1 (ch. 4); age of, 53; Carboniferous, 73, 76, 84, 90; Devonian, 55–56; eggs of, 87; first, 55; keyhole, 75–76; tadpoles of, 87
anal trophallaxis, 148
Andes, 155, 170–71, 174, 176, 185
angiosperms, xiii, 2, 156–57, 159, 165–66
animals: complex, 92; exoskeletal, 26; first land, 36; land, 37; multicellular, 20, 23, 29, 191; terrestrial, 35, 40; vertebrate, 19; warm-blooded, 94
annelids, 26–27, 30, 43, 58
Anomalocaris, 19, 136
anoxia, 97
Antarctica, 24, 65, 112, 155
antennae, xi, 45, 59, 67, 117
antifreeze, 3, 65
ants, 1, 3, 15, 75, 117, 128, 160, 162–64, 166–67, 176, 179, 191; army, 163; bullet, 212n9; Formica, 14; gigantic mutated, 92; super-colonies of, 9; weaver, 212n7; worker, 100, 205n9
Apatosaurus, 132, 154, 208n2
aphids, 102, 163, 166
Apidae, 10
aposematism, 14, 84, 121, 151, pl. 7–8
appendages: feeding, 19, 45, 117; filamentous, 76; jointed, 11, 20, 27, 29–30, 31, 37, 93; taillike, 143–44
aquatic insects, x, 3, 79–80, 87, 97–99, 106–9, 117, 124–25, 129, 143, 181, 204n2, 206n16
arachnids, 41
Archaeognatha, 67, 68, 205n5
Archaeopteryx, 149–50, 210–11nn12–13
Arthropoda, 11, 20
arthropods, 11, 17, 20, 27, 31, 37, 188, 190–92; age of, 19; Cambrian, 16, 19–20, 23, 27; characteristics of, 31, 93; defined, 30; Devonian, 54, 56; first, x, 17, 27; footprints of, 40; giant, 92–93; hexapod, 67–68; in film, 92–93; microscopic, 75; molting of, 61; predatory, 19, 173; scavenging, 69; Silurian, xi, 37; soil-dwelling, 58, 65, 74, 79; terrestrial, 49
assassin bugs, 126–27, pl. 6
asteroids, xiii, 15, 23, 96, 99, 113, 154, 168–69, 172, 190
astrobiology, 189
atmosphere: earth’s, 24–25; oxygen rich, 188
Australopithecus, 213n1
axillary sclerites, 88
bacteria, 5–6, 18–19, 23–24, 26, 47, 64, 148, 176, 189, 191
ballast stones, 107
bark: beetles, 74; lice, 74–75, 110–11, 179, 208n14; tree, 74, 110, pl. 4
bat flies, 13, 13, 181
bats, xii, 13, 81,
85, 181, 186
beaches, 40–41, 45, 52–53, 55
beaks, 82, 98, 100, 103, 116, 126
bee flies, 157
bees, 6, 10, 15, 74–75, 89, 117, 128, 154, 157, 160, 162, 164, 167, 169, 179, 183, 211n5; Bombus, 10; bumble, 10; carpenter, 10; first, 152; honey, 10; primitive, 162
beetles, 5, 11, 89, 94–95, 109–10, 114, 118, 121–22, 129, 140, 151, 156–57, 169, 176, 179, 183, 191, 205n6; bark, 74; beaver parasite, 13; click, xiii; dung-feeding, 1, 121; feather-winged, 103; first, 95, 110; flat-headed, 74; Goliath, 86–87, 131; ground, 10; grubs of, 124, 138, 140; Hercules, 131; inordinate fondness for, 192–93; June, 1; Jurassic, xiii; ladybug, 1; leaf, xiii, pl. 10; long-horned, viii, x–xiv; metallic, xiii; parasitic, 13; Permian, xii, 15, 94; rhinoceros, 132; scarab, xiii; subterranean, 3; weevil, xiii; wood-boring, xii–xiii, 74–75, 109, 135, 179
behavior: defensive, 39, 147, 179; egg-laying, 141, 160; lekking, 204n1 (ch. 5); nocturnal, 42, 89, 123–24; parasitic, 136–46; predatory, 136; social, 128; territorial, 164
Berlese funnel, 65
bias: arthropodan, 40; human-centrist, 18, 38, 55
big bang, 37, 185
bilateral symmetry, 30
binomial nomenclature, 8
biodegradation, 2
biodiversity, 173; crisis, 183
bioindicators, 5
biological species concept, 6
biomass: arthropod, 64; host, 146; insect, 3, 128; plant, 75, 90; vertebrate, 3, 128
biophilia, 154
bipedalism, 61
bird lice, 13, 167, 181
birds, xii, 3, 15, 18, 73–75, 80–81, 84–85, 116, 120, 130, 165, 167, 169, 174, 181, 186; first, 116, 122, 149–51; migratory, 116; nests of, 74, 151; oldest-known, 149; shore, 114
Blattaria, 89, 99, 122
blood, 78, 106, 135, 141–43, 206n2
body: forms, 27, 42, 59, 143; lice, 2; parts, 11; plans, 27; segmented, 93; size, 62–63, 103
Bombyliidae, 157
book: gills, 42; lice, 110; lungs, 42
brachiopods, 39, 43, 54, 95, 207n4
Braconidae, 10, 128, 144
brains, 29, 59, 134, 166
branches, 57, 103, 120, 162, 172, 175
bristletails, xi, 61, 67–69, 68, 76, 79, 129, 146–47, 175, 205n5, 205n8
bromeliads, xi, 3, 22, 89, 175, 181, 186
brontosaurs, 117, 127, 132–35, 208n2
buggy universe hypothesis, 191–92
bugs, 11, 15, 89, 94, 151, 163, 179, 191; assassin, 126–27, pl. 6; bed, 126; giant water, 126; hyperdiversity of, xiv; plant, 126, 157; royal palm, 1; seed, 126; stink, 126, 154; true, xiv, 11, 118, 122, 126–27; velvety shore, 1
Burgess Shale, 18, 45
burrows, 25–26, 29
butterflies, 5–7, 11, 15, 70, 84, 89, 105, 154, 157, 159, 169, 191; Altinote, 184, pl. 8; birdwing, 1; brush-footed, 60; first, 152, 158; hyperdiversity of, xiv; malachite, pl. 1; monarch, 6–7; nymphalid, pl. 1, pl. 8; papilionid, 144; viceroy, 6–7
caddisflies, 11, 95, 99, 106–9, 117–18, 122, 208n12
calcium carbonate, 23–24, 26
Calymene celebra, 38–39
Cambrian: arthropods, x, 16, 173; Early, 30, 45; explosion, 20, 23, 25, 80, 94, 190; fossils, 25; Late, 27, 33–34, 54; macrofauna, 26; period, x, 17–35, 37, 39, 56, 96, 181; seas, 27; shallow marine communities, 22; trilobites, 21, 27, 32–35
Campodeidae, 66
camouflage, 14, 84, pl. 1–4
Carabidae, 10
carbon, 23, 188
carbon dioxide, 23–24, 49, 75, 79, 85, 96–97
Carboniferous: atmosphere, 79; beetles, 205n6; climate, 78; coal-forming swamps, 17, 73–75, 79; Early, 75; Gnetales, 156; horsetails, 75, 95; Late, 75, 80–82, 87, 89–90; mayflies, 73; Pennsylvanian subperiod of, 71, 76; period, xi–xii, 15, 60, 69, 71–91, 93, 96, 99, 146, 173, 175–76, 181, 204n2; plant species, 73–74, 95, 205n13; seed ferns, 73, 95
cascade effect, 183
castes, 147, 148, 163–64; defined, 147; reproductive, 147; soldier, 147, 163; worker, 147, 163
caterpillars, 61, 105, 120, 144, 148, 157–58, 161–63, 176, 179, 181, 184; hemileucine, pl. 11; inchworm, 1
caves, 3, 46, 89, 168
cells: bee, 162; eukaryotic, 24; giant, 143; overwintering, 116
cellulose, 49–50, 75, 102, 109, 138, 147
Cenozoic: dinosaurs, 174; era, xiv, 15, 170–86; forests, 74
centipedes, 11, 20, 30, 45–46, 50, 56, 62, 84, 90, 173, 175, 206n16
cephalopods, 33–34, 41, 54
Cerambycidae, viii
cerci, 66, 76
Cercopidae, pl. 7
chaos, 2, 168
charcoal, 63
chelicerae, 43
chemical: communication, 164; defenses, 84, 102, 121, 158–60, 206n15, pl. 7–8; detection, 59; pheromones, 78, 164
chert, 63, 68
child labor, 164
chimpanzees, 172
chironomid midges, 4
chlorophyll, 174, 192, 215n1
chordates, 27
Chrysomelidae, pl. 10
cicadas, ix, 102, 120–21; periodical, 1
circulation, 26, 49, 60, 141
clams, 39
classification, 10–11
climate: arid terrestrial, 113; change, 97, 103, 112–13, 168, 185, 190; cool, 176; dry, 96; east African, 172
cloud forest, 66, 171, 173–77, pl. 10
coal, 15, 17, 73–76, 205n7; swamps, 79, 84, 90, 176
cockroaches, 1, 11, 61, 89–90, 99–100, 114, 118, 122, 147; age of, 89; Carboniferous, 75, 84, 206n17; ovipositor-bearing, 89, 206n17; social, 147; subterranean, 3, 89; wood, 75, 90; wood-eating, 75, 90, 110, 147
cocoons, 106
coevolution, 2, 156–57, 159–60, 165–66, 192
cohesion, 204n2 (ch. 4)
cold-bloodedness, 14, 77–78
Coleoptera, 11, 109, 111, 122, 205n6, pl. 10
Collembola, 4, 63–65, 64, 66
colonization: insect, 112; of land, 37–38, 40, 152, 173, 190–91; of plants, 113, 157; of ponds, 87; of streams, 106–9, 112
coloration, 82–84; aposematic, 14, 121, 151, pl. 8; cryptic, 84, 121–22, pl. 2–4; disruptive, 78, pl. 1; warning, 14, 78, 84, 121, pl. 7–8
comets, 23, 99, 168
communities: aquatic insect, 107; arthropod, 56; big animal, 154; dinosaur, 166; first forest, xi, 57–58, 63; first terrestrial, 36–51, 181; flower-associated insect, 155; insect, 51; land, 95; land-based, 37; land plant, xi, 56–57, 69; of life, 22–23, 37, 95; marine reef, 69; mixing of, 112; near-shore terrestrial, 97, 112; ocean, 69, 95; shallow marine, 22, 25; tree-like plant, 69; wetland, 112; wood-consuming, 75
competition, 99, 104, 112, 144; for marine niches, 59; for sunlight, 78, 174
complexity, 154, 173, 181, 185, 189; ecological, 95
complex metamorphosis, 91, 95, 111–12, 181, 205n6, 207n8
conifers, 73, 82, 90, 95, 117, 120, 127, 129, 134, 156, 204n4 (ch. 5); redwood-like, 151
constellations, 171, 192
continental drift, 23–25, 96, 108, 111–13, 154–55, 168, 190, 208n15
Cooksonia, 48, 57
cooperative brood care, 147, 163
coprolites, 82, 120, 205nn13–14
coral reefs, 38–40, 43, 53–54, 111
corals, 26; Devonian, 53–54, 56; first, 26; Petoskey, 53, 95; rugose, 38; Silurian, 38–39; tabulate, 38, 54
cordaites plants, 73, 82, 204n4 (ch. 5)
Corydalidae, pl. 9
Costa Rica, viii, ix
coumarins, 159
courtship, xii, 14, 44, 78, 80, 104, 125
crabs, 28, 30, 192
Cretaceous: continents, 155; Early, xiii, 15, 140, 154–56, 161; extinctions, 101, 182; forests, 155; India, 155; Late, xiii, 133, 157, 168, 172; Middle, 157; period, xii, 116, 152–69; plant communities, 166; plant toxins, 166; South America, 155
crickets, ix, 3, 11, 61, 95, 99–100, 118, 122
crinoids, 95
crochets, 158
crustaceans,
31, 34–35, 54
crypsis, 14, 101, 121–23, 123, 151, pl. 2–4, pl. 12
cryptic species, 8–9
cryptobiosis, 4
Cryptocercidae, 147
Curculionidae, 10
cuticles, 20, 26, 46, 49, 63, 79, 143, 145, 158
cyanobacteria, 26, 49
cyanogenic glycosides, 159
cycads, 95, 117, 120, 124, 129, 134, 156
damselflies, 98, 107, 117, 122, 176
Darwin, Charles, 165
debris: impact, 113, 169; organic, 67, 74, 107–8; volcanic, 117; woody, 175
decomposition, 74–75, 89–90, 108, 110, 140, 149, 205n5, 205n7
defenses: chemical, 84, 121, pl. 8, pl. 11; secondary, 121
defensive behavior, 39, 147, 179
dehydration, 4, 65
Dermaptera, 124
deserts, 3, 42, 65, 151
desiccation, 4, 65, 116, 140, 158
detritivores, 2, 90
development: delayed, 180; metamorphic, 93; slow, 100; wasp, 146; wing, 104
Devonian: coral reef ecosystems, 54, 69; Early, xi, 15, 48, 57, 175; fish diversity, 54; Gilboa forest, 57, 67; Late, 58, 67, 69, 75, 80; lungfish, 52; myriapods, 62; period, 17, 37, 42, 50–69, 96, 146, 175, 181; scorpions, 56, 62, 173; soils, 59, 64, 69; springtails, 63
digestive system, 26, 60, 102, 105, 143, 145
Dimetrodon, 93–94
dinosaurs, xiv, 18, 94, 96–97, 99, 116–17, 132–35, 154, 165–69, 172–73, 180, 191, 212n10; age of, 18; bird-sized, 118; carnivorous, 119–20, 133–35, 154; duck-billed, 154–55, 167, 169; feathered, 15, 116, 122, 129, 149–51, 167, 174, 176; first, 115, 118–20; flying, 81, 149–51; herds of, 134–35, 154; insectivorous, 120–22; Jurassic, xiii, 132–35, 149–51; long-necked, 120, 132–33; nest-marauding, 167; plant-feeding, 120–21, 166–67; tree-dwelling, 119, 149–50; Triassic, 118–27, 129, 150; warm-blooded, 111, 133
Diplodocus, 132, 151, 154, 209n2
diplopods, 46
Diplura, 65–68, 66, 175
Diptera, 11, 108–9, 111, 122
diseases, 148, 166–67, 183, 206n2
dispersal, 80, 104, 148
diversity, 181; arthropod, 29; dinosaur, 121; insect, 1–3, 5, 94, 121, 180–82; ordinal, 94, 206n3; plant, 192
DNA, 6–7, 48, 136, 191
dobsonflies, 118, 122, 124–25, pl. 9
dragonflies, 11, 79–81, 84–87, 99, 107; immature, 93
Planet of the Bugs: Evolution and the Rise of Insects Page 27
