the dog genus Canis contains the coyote species, Canis latrans, the wolf Cants lupus, the red wolf, Canis niger, and quite a few others. All the Canis species are very similar in anatomy, so it's useful shorthand to use Canis in general discussions of mammal evolution where we want to compare cats with dogs and weasels. When we say Brontosaurus, we invoke a
closely knit group of species, including the most common Brontosaurus excelsus, the very
rare Brontosaurus louisae (found only at Dinosaur National Monument), and the super-huge
Brontosaurus ajax. These three differ in details of bony anatomy about to the same degree
that closely related modern species of bird, crocodile, and mammal differ among themselves
today. And therefore we can conclude that the three Brontosaurus species were "good" species—they each represent a distinct breeding unit that did not exchange genes very often
with the other species. One reason paleontologists are reluctant to talk in species, rather
than in generic units, is that it's often very hard to tell closely related species apart from
fragmentary fossil skeletons. But things are changing. Recent intensive study of dinosaurs
allows much greater precision in sorting out clusters of sibling species. A curious exception
to tradition is that nearly everyone talks of Tyrannosaurus rex when the genus Tyrannosaurus is discussed. There are other species in the genus, but T. rex is the best known and the
generic-plus-specific names sound so good together that Tyrannosaurus rex is just irresistible to the tongue.
Andrews, Roy Chapman, All About Dinosaurs (New York: Random House, 1953).
Bowler, Peter J . , Fossils and Progress: Paleontology and the Idea of Progressive Evolution in the Nineteenth Century (New York: Science History Publications, 1976). Now unfortunately out of print, this is one of the best books on the subject.
, Evolution: The History of an Idea (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984).
Clemens, W. W., "Fossil Mammals of the Type Lance Formation, Wyoming, Part I, Intro-
duction; Multituberculata," Univ. Calif. Publ. Geol. Sci. 48 (1963): 1 - 1 0 5 .
Colbert, Edwin H., Dinosaurs: Their Discovery and Their World (New York, E. P. Dutton,
1 9 6 1 ) .
, Men and Dinosaurs: The Search in Field and Laboratory (New York: E. P. Dutton,
1968).
, A Fossil Hunter's Notebook: My Life with Dinosaurs and Other Friends (New York:
E. P. Dutton, 1980).
Eisenberg, John F., The Mammalian Radiations: An Analysis of Trends in Evolution, Adapta-
tion, and Behavior (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1981).
Fenton, Carroll Lane, Tales Told by Fossils (Garden City, New York: Doubleday, 1966).
Goodrich, S. G. and Alexander Winchell, The Animal Kingdom: Wonders and Curiosities (New
York: A . J . J o h n s o n and Company, 1867).
464 | NOTES AND REFERENCES
Gregory, William King, Evolution Emerging: A Survey of Changing Patterns from Primeval Life to Man (New York: Macmillan, 1951).
Howard, Robert West, The Dawnseekers: The First History of American Paleontology (New
York and London: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1975).
Kurten, Bjorn, The Age of Mammals (New York: Columbia University Press, 1972).
Lanham, Url, The Bone Hunters (New York and London: Columbia University Press, 1973).
Love joy, Arthur O., The Great Chain of Being: A Study of the History of an Idea (Cambridge, Mass. and London, England: Harvard University Press, 1 9 3 6 and 1964).
Lull, Richard Swann, Organic Evolution (New York: Macmillan, 1929).
Mantell, Gideon Algernon, The Medals of Creation, or. First Lessons in Geology, and the Study
of Organic Remains, 2nd ed. (London: Henry G. Bohn, 1853).
Reed, W. Maxwell, The Earth for Sam: The Story of Mountains, Rivers, Dinosaurs and Men
(New York: Harcourt, Brace and Co., 1930).
Rudwick, Martin J. S., The Meaning of Fossils: Episodes in the History of Paleontology (New York: Neale Watson Academic Publications, Inc., 1972). Recently reissued by University of Chicago Press.
, The Great Devonian Controversy: The Shaping of Scientific Knowledge Among Gentle-
manly Specialists (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1985). A thorough
and perceptive analysis of the geology of the 1830s in England (a decade when many
dinosaurs were discovered), this book also includes a comprehensive bibliography.
Scott, William Berry man, A History of Land Mammals in the Western Hemisphere (New York:
Macmillan, 1 9 1 3 ) .
Shelton, John S., Geology Illustrated (San Francisco and London: W. H. Freeman and Co.,
1966).
Swinnerton, H. H., Fossils (London and Glasgow: Collins Clear-Type Press, 1960).
Thorpe, Malcom Rutherford, ed., Organic Adaptation to Environment (New Haven: Yale
University Press, 1924).
Zim, Herbert S., Alligators and Crocodiles (New York: William Morrow and Co., 1952).
, Dinosaurs (New York: William Morrow and Co., 1954).
3. MESOZOIC CLASS W A R F A R E : COLD-BLOODS V S . THE FABULOUS FURBALLS
Carr, Archie, and editors of Life, The Reptiles (New York: Time, Inc., 1963).
Ditmars, Raymond L., The Reptiles of North America (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1953).
Grubb, D., "The growth, ecology and population structure of giant tortoises on Aldabra,"
Phil. Trans. Royal Soc. London (B) 2 6 0 ( 1 9 7 1 ) : 3 2 7 - 3 7 2 .
Herzog, H. A., "An observation of nest opening by an American Alligator, Alligator missis-
sippiensis," Herpetolog. 31 (1975): 4 4 6 - 4 4 7 .
Hunt, R. H., "Maternal behavior in the Morelet's Crocodile, Crocodylus moreleti." Copeia (1975): 7 6 3 - 7 6 4 .
Mcllhenny, E. A., The Alligator's Life History (Boston: Christopher's Publishing House, 1935).
Minton, Sherman A., Jr., and Madge Rutherford Minton, Giant Reptiles (New York: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 1973).
Noble, G. K., "Contributions to the Herpetology of the Belgian Congo Based on the Col-
lection of the American Museum Congo Expeditions," Bull. American Museum of Nat-
ural History 49 (1924): 1 4 7 - 3 4 8 .
Owen, R., "Description of remains of Megalania prisca. Part II," Phil. Trans. Royal Soc. 171
(1880): 1 0 3 7 - 1 0 5 0 .
Pope, Clifford H., The Reptile World (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1955).
Porter, Kenneth R., Herpetology (Philadelphia, London, and Toronto: W. B. Saunders Co.,
1972).
Romer, Alfred S., Osteology of the Reptiles (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1956).
NOTES AND REFERENCES I 465
Romer, Alfred Sherwood and Thomas S. Parsons, The Vertebrate Body, 5th ed. (Philadelphia, London, and Toronto: W. B. Saunders Co., 1977).
Schmidt, K. P., "Contributions to the Herpetology of the Belgian Congo Based on the Col-
lection of the American Museum Congo Expeditions, I. Turtles, Crocodiles, Lizards
and Chameleons," Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. His. 39 ( 1 9 1 9 ) : 3 8 5 - 6 2 4 .
, "Contributions to the Herpetology of the Belgian Congo Based on the Collection
of the American Museum Congo Expeditions," Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. His. 49 (1923):
1 - 1 4 7 .
Young, J. Z., The Life of Vertebrates. 3rd ed. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1981).
4. DINOSAURS SCORE WHERE KOMODO DRAGONS FAIL
Notes:
There is a confusing plexus of terms for bioenergetics and heat regulation. Homeotherm means
"constant temperature"; poikilotkerm means "varying temperature"; heliotherm means "using the sun to heat up"; ectotherm means "relying on outside heat sources"; endotherm means
"relying on internal body heat"; au
tomatic endotherm means "having a very high and constant basal metabolism that supplies sufficient heat for maintaining a high, constant body temperature"; exercise endothermy means "using the heat of exercise to warm up the body"; non-shivering thermogenesis (NSTG) means "extra heat produced, without shivering, to keep body
temperature constant in an endothermic homeotherm." When I use the term "warm-blooded,"
I'm using it in the nineteenth-century sense—the temperature-regulation style of most birds
and advanced mammals today, a style that employs automatic endothermy, and NSTG, and
shivering, and usually some special cooling mechanism, like sweating or panting. No typical,
living reptile is an automatic endotherm, nor does any living reptile species have much of a
NSTG capacity. Some primitive mammals—such as hedgehogs and sloths—have much lower
basal metabolism than typical mammals and birds, but even these primitive mammals can
increase heat production enormously with NSTG, something no typical reptile can do. Since
1 9 6 8 , I have been persuaded that dinosaurs, all dinosaurs, were automatic endotherms with
a high N S T G capacity—in other words, dinosaurs were equivalent to advanced birds and
mammals.
Bakker, Robert T., "Dinosaur Physiology and the Origin of Mammals," Evolution 25 ( 1 9 7 1 ) : 6 3 6 - 6 5 8 .
, "Locomotor Energetics of Lizards and Mammals Compared," Physiologist 15 (1972): 2 7 8 .
, "Dinosaur Bio-energetics—a Reply to Bennett and Dalzell, and Feduccia," Evolution
2 8 (1974): 4 9 7 - 5 0 3 .
, "Experimental and Fossil Evidence for the Evolution of Tetrapod Bioenergetics," In
D. M. Gates and R. B. Schmerl, eds., Perspectives of Biophysical Ecology (New York:
Springer-Verlag, 1975), pp. 3 6 5 - 3 9 9 .
, "Dinosaur Renaissance," Scientific American 232 (1975): 5 8 - 7 8 .
Bennett, A. F. and W. R. Dawson, "Metabolism," In C. Gans, ed., Biology of the Reptilia 5
(London: Academic Press, 1976).
Bonaparte, Jose F., "Pisanosaurus mertii Casamiquela and the origin of the Ornithischia," /.
Paleont. 50 ( 1 9 7 6 ) : 8 0 8 - 8 2 0 .
Calder, W. A. and J. R. King, "Thermal and Caloric Relations of Birds," in D. Farner and
J. King, eds.. Avian Biology Vol. IV (New York and London: Academic Press, 1974),
pp. 2 6 0 - 2 9 3 .
Charig, A. J . , "Dinosaur Monophyly and a New Class of Vertebrates: A Critical Review,"
In A. d'A. Bellairs and C. B. Cox, eds., Morphology and Biology of Reptiles (London: Ac-
ademic Press, 1976).
466 | NOTES AND REFERENCES
Cooper, M. R., "The Prosauropod ankle and dinosaur phylogeny," S. A/r.J. Sci. 76 (1980): 1 7 6 - 1 7 8 .
Dawson, T. J . , " 'Primitive' Mammals," in G. C. Whittow, ed., Comparative Physiology of Thermoregulation. Vol. Ill (New York: Academic Press, 1973), pp. 1—46.
Dawson, W. R. and J. W. Hudson, "Birds," in G. C. Whittow, ed., Comparative Physiology of Thermoregulation. Vol. 1 (London and New York: Academic Press, 1970), pp. 223—
310.
Jansky, L., "Non-shivering Thermogenesis and Its Thermoregulatory Significance," Biol. Rev.
4 8 (1973): 8 5 - 1 3 2 .
Langston, Wann., "Ziphodont Crocodiles," Fieldiana. Geology 33 (1975): 291—314.
Lull, R. S., "Dinosaurian Climatic Response," in M. R. Thorpe, ed., Organic Adaptation to Environment (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1924), pp. 225—279.
McNab, B. K., "The Energetics of Endotherms," Ohio Journal of Science 74 (1974): 3 7 0 -
380.
, "The Evolution of Endothermy in the Phylogeny of Mammals," American Naturalist
112 (1978): 1 - 2 1 .
Santa Luca, A. P., A. W. Crompton, and A. J. Charig, "A Complete Skeleton of the Late
Triassic Ornithischian Heterodontosaurus tucki." Nature 264 (1976): 324—327.
Schmidt-Nielsen, Knut, How Animals Work (Cambridge, London, and New York: Cam-
bridge University Press, 1972).
Spotila, J. R., P. W. Lommen, G. S. Bakken, and D. M. Gates, "A Mathematical Model for
Body Temperatures of Large Reptiles: Implications for Dinosaur Ecology," American
Naturalist 107 ( 1 9 7 3 ) : 3 9 1 - 4 0 4 .
Thomas, Roger D. K. and Everett C. Olson, eds., A Cold Look at the Warm-Blooded Dino-
saurs. A A A S Selected Symposium 28 (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1980).
5. THE CASE OF THE BRONTOSAURUS: FINDING THE BODY
Behrensmeyer, Anna K. and Andrew P. Hill, Fossils in the Making: Vertebrate Taphonomy
and Paleoecology (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1980).
Dodson, Peter, A. K. Behrensmeyer, Robert T. Bakker, and John S. Mcintosh, "Taphon-
omy and Paleoecology of the Dinosaur Beds of the Jurassic Morrison Formation," Pa-
leobiology 6 (2) 1980: 2 0 8 - 2 3 2 .
Efremov, E. A., "Taphonomy and the Geological Record," Acad. Sci. USSR Pub/. Paleont.
Int. 24 (1950): 3 - 1 7 6 .
6. G I Z Z A R D STONES A N D BRONTOSAUR MENUS
Beebe, C. William, The Bird: Its Form and Function (New York: Henry Holt and Co., 1906).
Buick, T. L., The Mystery of the Moa. (New Plymouth, New Zealand: Thomas Avery and
Sons, 1931).
7. THE CASE OF THE D U C K B I L L S HAND
Dodson, Peter, A. K. Behrensmeyer, Robert T. Bakker, and John S. Mcintosh, "Taphon-
omy and Paleoecology of the Dinosaur Beds of the Jurassic Morrison Formation," Pa-
leobiology 6 (2) 1980: 2 0 8 - 2 3 2 .
Lull, Richard Swann and N. E. Wright, "Hadrosaurian Dinosaurs of North America," Geo-
logical Society of America Special Paper 40 (1942): 1 - 2 4 2 .
Osborn, Henry Fairfield, "Fossil Wonders of the West," Century Magazine 68 ( 1 9 0 4 ) : 6 8 0 -
694.
Riggs, Elmer S., "Structure and Relationships of Opisthocoelian Dinosaurs Part II: The
Brachiosauridae," Field Columbian Museum Publication 94, Geological Series II, 6 (1904): 2 2 9 - 2 4 7 .
NOTES AND REFERENCES | 467
9. WHEN DINOSAURS INVENTED FLOWERS
Axelrod, D. I., "Mesozoic Paleogeography and Early Angiosperm History," Bot. Rev. 36 (1970): 2 7 7 - 3 1 9 .
, "Edaphic Aridity as a factor in Angiosperm Evolution," American Naturalist 106
(1972): 3 1 1 - 3 2 0 .
Bakker, Robert T., "Dinosaur feeding behaviour and the origin of flowering plants," Nature London 274 (17 August 1978): 6 6 1 - 6 6 3 .
Doyle, J. A. and L. J. Hickey, "Coordinated Evolution in Potomac Group Angiosperm Pol-
len and Leaves," Am. J. Botany 59 (6, pt. 2) 1 9 7 2 : 6 6 0 .
Hickey, L. J. and Doyle, J. A., "Fossil Evidence on Evolution of Angiosperm Leaf Vena-
tion," Am. J. Botany 59 (6, pt. 2) 1972: 6 6 1 .
Scott, Richard A., Elso S. Barghoorn, and Estella Leopold, "How Old are the Angio-
sperms," American Journal of Science (1960): 258-A, 2 8 4 - 2 9 9 .
Seward, A. C, Plant Life Through the Ages: A Geological and Botanical Retrospect (New York: Macmillan; and Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Ptess, 1931).
Stebbins, G. Ledyard, "The Probable Growth Habit of the Earliest Flowering Plants," Ann.
Missouri Bot. Garden 52 (1965): 4 5 7 - 4 6 8 .
, Flowering Plants: Evolution Above the Species Level (Cambridge: Harvard University
Press, 1974).
10. THE TEUTONIC DIPLODOCUS; A LESSON IN G A I T A N D CARRIAGE
Alexander, R. McN., "Estimates of speeds of Dinosaurs," Nature 2 6 1 (1976): 1 2 9 - 1 3 0 .
Coombs, W. P., Jr., "Theoretical Aspects of Cursorial Adaptation in Dinosaurs," Quarterly Review of Biology 53 (1978): 3 9 3 - 4 1 8 .
Farlow, J. O., "Estimates of Dinosaur Speeds from a New Trac
kway Site in Texas," Nature 294 ( 1 9 8 1 ) : 7 4 7 - 7 4 8 .
Gambaryan, P. P., How Mammals Run: Anatomical Adaptations (Jerusalem and London: Is-
rael Program for Scientific Translations; New York and Toronto: John Wiley and Sons,
Halsted Press Division, 1974).
Guggisberg, C.A.W., S.O.S. Rhino (New York: October House, 1966).
Halstead, Murat, Full Official History of the War with Spain (New Haven: Butler and Alger, 1899).
Hanks, John, The Struggle for Survival: The Elephant Problem (New York: Mayflower Books,
1979).
Haubold, H., "Ichnia Amphibiorum et Reptilium fossilium," Handbook of Palaeoherpetology 1 8 ( 1 9 7 1 ) : 1 - 1 2 4 .
, Die Fossilen Saurierfahrten (Wittenburg: A. Ziensen Verlag, 1974).
Lull, Richard Swann, A Revision of the Ceratopsia or Horned Dinosaurs (New Haven, Conn.:
Memoirs of the Peabody Museum of Natural History, Volume III, Part 3, 1933).
McGinnis, Helen J . , Carnegie's Dinosaurs (Pittsburgh: Carnegie Institute, 1982).
Muybridge, Edweard, Animals in Motion (New York: Dover Books, 1957).
Romer, A. S., "The Pelvic Musculature of Saurischian Dinosaurs," Bull. American Museum of Natural History 48 (1923): 6 0 5 - 6 1 7 .
Sternberg, C. M., "Dinosaur Tracks from Peace River, British Columbia," National Museum of Canada Bulletin 68 ( 1 9 2 1 ) : 5 9 - 8 5 .
Thompson, D'Arcy Wentworth, On Growth and Form (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1961).
11. MESOZOIC A R M S RACE
Notes:
Stegosaurus actually contains two quite different genera, as the term is used today. Marsh
named Stegosaurus for species with very long legs, rather small, squat triangular plates, and 468 I NOTES AND REFERENCES
four to eight tail spikes. Marsh named Diracodon for stegosaur species with relatively gigantic and very narrow-based triangular plates, four tail spikes, and limbs less elongated than
in true Stegosaurus. The National Museum in Washington, D.C., has a mounted Diracodon; Yale has an eight-spike Stegosaurus: the American Museum in New York and the Carnegie
Museum in Pittsburgh have four-spiked Stegosaurus.
The obturator prong traditionally is viewed as a new adaptation within certain beaked
clans, but I disagree. Primitive archosaurs have very wide, platelike ischial bone shafts, with
Robert T Bakker Page 48
