a perforation near the hip socket. 1 view the obturator prong as a remnant of the old is-
chiadic plate, cut away from in front by expansion of the perforation and from behind by a
general slimming of the shaft. Deinonychus has an obturator prong and a beaked-dinosaur-
type hip design, and in Deinonychus the prong is clearly a remnant of the ischiadic plate.
Lull, Richard Swann, "A Revision of the Ceratopsia, or Horned Dinosaurs," Memoirs of the Peabody Museum National Institute 3 (3) 1933: 1 — 135.
Nopsca, F. von, Osteologia reptilium fossilium et recentium, "Fossilium catalogus," Pars 27, Berlin (1926); also Supplement. "Fossilium catalogus," Pars 50 ( 1 9 3 1 ) . Annotated bibliography of important papers dealing with fossil reptiles and amphibians.
1 4 . ARCHAEOPTERYX PATERNITY S U I T : THE D I N O S A U R - B I R D CONNECTION
Beebe, C. William, The Bird: Its Form and Function (New York: Henry Holt and Co., 1906).
, "Ecology of the Hoatzin," Zoologica 1 (2) 1909: 4 5 - 6 6 .
, G. Inness Hartley and Paul G. Howes, Tropical Wild Life in British Guiana (New
York: The New York Zoological Society, 1 9 1 7 ) .
Feduccia, A. and H. B. Tordoff, "Feathers of Archaeopteryx: Assymetric Vanes Indicate
Aerodynamic Function," Science 203 (1979): 1 0 2 1 - 1 0 2 2 .
Heilmann, Gerhard, The Origin of Birds (New York: Appleton and Co., 1927).
Huxley, Thomas Henry, "On the Animals Which Are Most Nearly Intermediate Between
Birds and Reptiles," Annals and Magazine of Natural History 4, February 1868.
, "Remarks upon Archaeopteryx lithographica," Proceedings of the Royal Society 16 (1868).
, "Further Evidence of the Affinity Between the Dinosaurian Reptiles and Birds,"
Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London 26 (1870).
Marsh, Othniel Charles, "Odontornithes, a monograph of the extinct toothed birds of North America,"
Rept. Geo/. Exp/or. 40th Parallel 7 (1880): 1 - 2 0 1 .
Ostrom, John H., "Osteology of Deinonychus antirrhopus, an unusual theropod from the Lower Cretaceous of Montana," Bull. Peabody Mus. Natural Hist., 30, 165 S., 83 Abb., 13
Tab., (1969), New Haven.
, "Archaeopteryx and the Origin of Birds," Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 8
(1976): 9 1 - 1 8 2 .
Strahl, Stuart D., "A Bird Stranger than Fiction," Animal Kingdom 87 (5) 1984: 1 4 - 1 9 .
Von Meyer, Hermann, "On the Archaeopteryx lithographica, from the Lithographic Slate of Solenhofen," Annals and Magazine of Natural History 9 (April 1862).
16. THE WARM-BLOODED TEMPO OF THE DINOSAURS' GROWTH
Bakker, Robert T., "Experimental and Fossil Evidence for the Evolution of Tetrapod En-
ergetics," in D. Gates and R. Schmerl, eds., Perspectives in Biophysical Ecology (New York: Springer-Verlag, 1975), pp. 3 6 5 - 3 9 9 .
, "Dinosaur Heresy—Dinosaur Renaissance," in Roger D. K. Thomas and Everett C.
Olson, eds., A Cold Look at the Warm-Blooded Dinosaurs (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press,
1980).
Enlow, D. H. and S. O. Brown; "A Comparative Histological Study of Fossil and Recent
Bone Tissues, Part II," Texas J. Sci. 9 (1957): 1 8 6 - 2 1 4 .
NOTES AND REFERENCES | 469
, "A Comparative Histological Study of Fossil and Recent Bone Tissues, Part III,"
Texas J. Sci. 10 (1958): 4 0 5 - 4 4 3 .
Horner, John R., "Coming Home to Roost," Montana Outdoors 13 (1982).
, "Evidence of Colonial Nesting and 'Site Fidelity' Among Ornithischian Dinosaurs,"
Nature 2 9 7 (1982).
, "Cranial Osteology and Morphology of the Type Specimen of Maiasaura peebleso-
rum (Ornithischia Hadrosauridae) with discussion of its Phylogenetic Position,"/ Vert.
Paleo. 3 (1983).
, "The Nesting Behavior of Dinosaurs," Scientific American 2 5 0 (1984).
Johnston, P. A., "Growth Rings in Dinosaur Teeth," Nature 2 7 8 (1979): 6 3 5 - 6 3 6 .
Peabody, F. E., "Annual Growth Zones in Living and Fossil Vertebrates, "J. Morphology 108
( 1 9 6 1 ) : 1 1 - 6 2 .
Pekelharing, C. J . , "Cementum Deposition as an Age Indicator in the Brush-Tailed Possum,
Trichosurus vulpecula Kerr (Marsupiala)," Aust.J. Zool. 18 (1970): 5 1 - 8 0 .
Ricqles, Armand de, "Evolution of Endothermy: Histological Evidence," Evolutionary Theory 1 (1974): 5 1 - 8 0 .
, "Tissue Structures of Dinosaur Bone: Functional Significance and Possible Relation
to Dinosaur Physiology," in Roger D. K. Thomas and Everett C. Olson, eds., A Cold
Look at the Warm-Blooded Dinosaurs (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1980), pp. 1 0 3 -
139. See also the list of papers by Ricqles in the Bibliography of this volume.
17. STRONG HEARTS, S T O U T LUNGS, A N D BIG BRAINS
Hopson, J . , "Relative Brain Size in Dinosaurs," In Roger D. K. Thomas and Everett C.
Olson, eds., A Cold Look at the Warm-Blooded Dinosaurs (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press,
1980).
Jerison, H. J . , Evolution of the Brain and Intelligence (New York: Academic Press, 1973).
Russell, Dale. "A New Specimen of Stenonychosaurus from the Oldman Formation (Creta-
ceous) of Alberta," Canadian J. Earth Sci. 6 (1969): 5 9 5 - 6 1 2 .
18. EATERS A N D EATEN AS THE TEST OF WARM-BLOODEDNESS
Auffenberg, W., "A Day with No. 19—Report on a study of the Komodo Monitor," Animal
Kingdom 6 (1970): 1 8 - 2 3 .
Bennett, A. F. and B. Dalzell, "Dinosaur Physiology: A Critique," Evolution 27 (1973): 170—
174.
Edgar, W. D., "Aspects of the ecological energetics of the wolf spider Pardosa (Lycosa) lu-gubris (Walekenaer)," Oecologia (B) 7 ( 1 9 7 1 ) : 1 3 6 - 1 5 4 .
Golley, F. B., "Secondary productivity in terrestrial communities," Am. Zool. 8 (1968): 5 3 -
59.
Moulder, B. C. and D. E. Reichle, "Significance of spider predation in the energy dynamics
of forest-floor arthropod communities," Ecol. Monogr. 42 (1972): 4 7 3 - 4 9 8 .
Olson, E. C, "Community evolution and the origin of mammals," Ecology 47 (1966): 291 —
308.
Sinclair, A.R.E. and M. Norton-Griffiths, eds., Serengeti: Dynamics of an Ecosystem (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1979).
Varley, G. C, "The Concept of energy flow applied to a woodland community," in A. Wat-
son, ed., Animal Populations in Relation to Their Food Resources (Oxford: Blackwell, 1970), pp. 3 8 9 - 4 0 6 .
19- P U N C T U A T E D EQUILIBRIUM: THE EVOLUTIONARY TIMEKEEPER
Eldredge, Niles and Stephen Jay Gould, "Punctuated Equilibria: an alternative to phyletic
gradualism," in Schopf, T.J.M., ed., Models in Paleobiology (San Francisco: Freeman, Cooper, 1972), pp. 8 2 - 1 1 5 .
470 | NOTES AND REFERENCES
Gould, Stephen Jay, Ever Since Darwin (New York: W. W. Norton, 1977).
, Hen's Teeth and Horse's Toes (New York and London: W. W. Norton and Co., 1983).
, The Flamingo's Smile (New York: W. W. Norton, 1985).
and Niles Eldredge, "Punctuated Equilibria: the Tempo and Mode of Evolution Re-
considered," Paleobiology 3 (1977) 1 1 5 - 1 5 1 .
Stanley, Steven M., Macroevolution: Pattern and Process (San Francisco: W. H. Freeman and Co., 1979).
20. THE K A Z A N I A N REVOLUTION: SETTING THE STAGE FOR THE DINOSAURIA
Brink, A. S., "Speculations on some advanced Mammalian characteristics in the higher
Mammal-like Reptiles," Paleontologica Africana IV (1956): 7 7 - 9 7 .
Frakes, Lawrence, Elizabeth M. Kemp and John C. Crowell, "Late Paleozoic Glaciation: Part
VI, Asia," Bui. Geol. Soc. Amer. 86 ( 1 9 7 5 ) : 4 5 4 - 4 6 4 .
Romer, A. S., "The locomotor appara
tus of certain primitive and mammal-like reptiles,"
Bull. American Museum of Natural History 46 (1922): 5 1 7 - 6 0 6 .
2 1 . THE TWILIGHT OF THE DINOSAURS
Notes:
It's absolutely crucial to get straight what is being debated when the term "dinosaur diver-
sity" is used in arguments about the Cretaceous extinction. Since 1977 I have argued that
the evenness of large dinosaur species suffered major declines long before the very end of the Period. Dale Russell argues that the total number of all dinosaur species, large and small, didn't change much until the very end. I believe that there is no question about an evenness
decline for the one-ton-plus size category; Triceratops simply overwhelms all other genera for the last two million years or so in nearly every habitat. And arguments about total number of small dinosaur species are really premature—we don't have nearly enough skulls and
skeletons and a census based on shed teeth will be biased toward predators, because, for
some reason, meat-eaters are easier to tell apart from shed teeth than are herbivores.
Alvarez, Walter, Frank Asaro, Helen V. Michel and Luis Alvarez, "Evidence for a Major
Meteorite Impact on the Earth 34 Million Years Ago: Implications for Eocene Extinc-
tions," Science 2 1 6 (1982).
Bakker, R. T., "Tetrapod Mass Extinctions—A Model of the Regulation of Speciation Rates
and Immigration by Cycles of Topographic Diversity," in A. Hallam, ed., Patterns of
Evolution (Amsterdam: Elsevier Scientific Publishing Co., 1977), pp. 4 3 9 - 4 6 8 .
Crosby, Alfred W., The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Social Consequences of 1492
(Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1972).
Elton, Charles S., The Ecology of Invasions by Animals and Plants (London: Chapman and Hall, 1972). First published by Methuen and Co. Ltd., 1958.
Ganapathy, R., "A Major Meteorite Impact on the Earth 65 Million Years Ago: Evidence
from the Cretaceous-Tertiary Boundary Clay," Science 2 0 9 (1980).
Gould, Stephen Jay, "The Belt of an Asteroid," Natural History 89 (1980).
Gottfried, Robert S., The Black Death: Natural and Human Disaster in Medieval Europe (New York: The Free Press, 1983).
Krassilov, V. A., "Climatic Changes in Eastern Asia as Indicated by Fossil Floras. I. Early
Cretaceous," Paleog. Paleocl. Paleoec. 13 (1973): 2 6 1 - 2 7 4 .
MacArthur, Robert H., Geographical Ecology: Patterns in the Distribution of Species (New York, Evanston, San Francisco and London: Harper and Row, Publishers, 1972).
McNeill, William H., Plagues and Peoples (Garden City: Anchor Books, Doubleday, 1976).
Osborn, Henry Fairfield, The Age of Mammals in Europe. Asia and North America (New York:
Macmillan, 1 9 1 0 ) .
Russell, Dale A., "The Gradual Decline of the Dinosaurs—Fact or Fallacy?," Nature 307
(26) January 1984: 3 6 0 - 3 6 1 .
NOTES AND REFERENCES | 471
Simpson, George Gaylord, The Geography of Evolution (Philadelphia and New York: Chilton Books, 1965).
Zinsser, Hans, Rats, Lice and History (Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 1934).
22. DINOSAURS HAVE CLASS
Notes:
There's a tale to tell about the famous clawed hand of the Heterodontosaurus found by Fuzz Crompton. Pete Galton and I published a diagram in Nature showing the sharp twist to the
thumb claw, and, indeed, the specimen showed this twist clearly then. But the hand bones
were broken by accident later, and glued back together incorrectly so the first finger joint
lost its twist (you can see the mismatched glued ends in the specimen and in casts). Some
scholars have been misled into thinking that there was no twist in this animal.
Most books about dinosaurs use the term "Ornithischia" for the beaked dinosaurs, but
I prefer Marsh's "Predentata" because it's much more precise—it refers to the unique pre-
dentary bone that forms the beak-core in the lower jaw. "Ornithischia"—"Bird Hips"—is less precise because some nonbeaked dinosaurs evolved bird hips too, Deinonychus being an excellent example.
And most books give a rigid, formal hierarchy to dinosaur family trees; the Orders Or-
nithischia and Saurischia being broken down into suborders and infraorders. I don't have a
complete alternative hierarchy yet, but some suggestions can be made. The Archosauria should
be a Class; the Dinosauria would be a Subclass; the Phytodinosauria and Theropoda would
be Infraclasses, with the birds a Superorder within the Theropoda, and the Sauropoda and
Predentata Superorders within the Phytodinosauria. It's hard to place the anchisaurs (tradi-
tionally called "prosauropods"); they may be closer to either predentates or sauropods. The
nondinosaur archosaurs are hard to subdivide cleanly right now; I would put the ugly beaked
rhynchosaurs into the Archosauria, tentatively, even though they had "cold-blooded" bone
microtexture. Archosaurs clearly are related to the other "diapsid" reptiles (those having
two temporal fenestrae and another large fenestra in the palate, below the eyes); diapsids
include lizards and snakes and other lesser groups (maybe turtles). The Diapsida should be
a high-rank category—a Superclass?
Another Superclass is needed for the mammals, protomammals, and their uncles, the
finback clan (pelycosaurs). The name "Theropsid" ("mammal-face") could be used. Protomammals and mammals, the warm-blooded theropsids, could be the Class Neotheropsida
("newer mammal-faces"). Thus the Neotheropsida and Archosauria are the two Classes de-
fined by crossing the threshold into warm-bloodedness. What about the Class Reptilia? I
advocate abandonment. Use "reptile" in the lower case only, as a loose term for non-warm-
blooded, nonamphibian tetrapods.
472 | NOTES AND REFERENCES
Index
Illustrations are indicated by page numbers in italics.
Adaptive radiation, 1 9 0 - 1 9 8 , 3 7 4 , 4 0 4 , 4 1 0 ,
Ankylosauria, 2 2 6
4 1 4 - 4 1 6 , 4 1 9 . See a/so Extinction, oppor-
Ankylosaurids, 2 3 7
tunism following
Ankylosaurs. See also Beaked dinosaurs
Adaptive revolution, 197
anatomy, 157
Aetosaurs, 4 1 9 , 423
eyelids, as clues to evolution of, 2 5 4
Air sacs, 20, 2 8 0 , 3 0 5 , 3 6 3 - 3 6 5 . See also Respi-
feeding, 1 7 6 - 1 7 8 , 1 9 4 - 1 9 8
ratory systems
tails, 1 5 1 , 2 3 7
Alamosaurus. 119. 1 2 1 - 1 2 4 , 122-123. 191. 193.
Annates de Pateontologie, 4 1 3
See also Brontosaurs
Anodontosaurus, 195
Alberlosaurus. 122-123. 2 6 8 , 2 7 /
Anteaters, 2 5 5 - 2 5 6
Alexander, McNeil, 2 2 4
Anteosaurs, 4 1 0 , 4 1 4 , 4 1 9
Alligators, 2 0 7 - 2 0 9 , 3 4 8 - 3 4 9 , 3 6 9 , 4 3 1 . See also
Anurognatbus, 281
Crocodiles; Crocodilians
Archaeopteryx, 299
Allosaurs, 33, 3 7 , 268, 3 3 9 - 3 4 0 , 3 7 7
dinosaur affinities, 2 0 - 2 2 , 3 0 2 - 3 0 3 , 306, 3 1 2 -
Allosaurus. 3 8 - 3 9 , 108-109. 342
3 1 6
anatomy, limb, 2 7 2
feeding, 321
anatomy, skull, 264—267
f l i g h t , 3 1 8 - 3 1 9
crests, 3 3 9
teeth, 3 2 0
evolution of, 2 5 9 , 4 0 1
Archeria. 3 8 2
habitat, 3 9 0
Archosauria, 4 1 6 , 4 4 9 , 4 5 0 - 4 6 2
hunting patterns, 2 2 9 , 2 3 3
Archosaurs, 4 1 6 , 4 1 9 , 4
4 9 , 4 5 2
lips, 143
Armor. See also Defense, animal; Display; Weap-
metabolic rate, 9 0 - 1 0 0
ons
rarity in fossil record, 2 5 8 , 3 7 9 , 391
aetosaur, 4 1 9
respiratory system, 363
Ceratophrys, 55
teeth, 2 6 2 , 3 5 9
dinosaur, 4 1 , 8 4 , 2 2 6 - 2 5 4
Alvarez, Walter, 4 3 2 , 4 3 4
nodosaur, 39, 2 3 5 - 2 3 7
American Museum of Natural History, New
plates, 2 3 0 - 2 3 3
York, 29
reptile, 56, 59, 7 7 - 7 9
Brontosaurus specimen, 2 0 3 , 3 3 9
silica, in plants, 129
duckbill, mummy, 146, 157
Armored dinosaurs, 1 2 0 - 1 2 1 , 2 2 6 - 2 5 4 , 2 6 4
Gobi Desert Expedition, 2 4 8 - 2 4 9 , 2 5 8
Arrhinoceratops, 396
horned dinosaur display, 2 4 4
Asteroid theory o f extinctions, 4 3 2 - 4 3 4 , 4 3 8 -
Tyrannosaurus rex specimen, 2 6 7
4 3 9 , 4 4 3
Amphibians
Atavisms, 316—317. See also Evolution, reversals
definition, 23, 3 2 6
in
courtship, 327
Aulacepbalodon, 338
keyhole, 3 2 8
Australia, biological isolation of, 4 4 3
Ancalagon, 46
Ancestry. See Classification; Phylogeny
Barghusen, Herb, 3 3 6
Anchiceratops. 195
Barosaurus. 190, 192
Anchisaurs, 2 5 7
Basilosaurus, 433
classification, 4 5 2 - 4 5 7 , 4 5 9
Basins, 4 4 - 4 5
defense, 2 5 5 - 2 5 7 , 2 6 3
Basking, 59. See also Thermoregulation
feeding, 185
Bathyopsis. 343
feet, as evidence of habitat, 157
Bats, 2 7 6 - 2 7 7 , 2 8 0 , 282
tails, 2 5 6
Bavarian limestone quarries (Solnhofen), 2 7 3
Ancbisaurus. 4 5 4 - 4 5 7 , 4 5 9
Beaked dinosaurs, /74
Andrews, Roy Chapman, 2 4 8 - 2 4 9
armor, 2 2 6 - 2 5 4
Angiosperms. See Plants, flowering
classification, 4 5 9
473
Beaked dinosaurs (continued)
extinction, 193
evolution of, 120, 254
feeding habits, 1 2 5 - 1 3 5 , 1 7 3 , 1 8 5 , 1 9 0
feeding, 1 7 1 - 1 7 8 , 1 9 4 - 1 9 8
habitat preference, 1 5 - 1 6 , 3 6 - 3 9 , 98, 105,
Robert T Bakker Page 49
