Unfair

by Adam Benforado

  Baron, Jonathan, and Ilana Ritov. “Omission Bias, Individual Differences, and Normality.” Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 94 (2003): 74–85.

  Boston Review. “Supermax Prison Cell Extraction.” YouTube video, 12:44. Posted December 16, 2010. http://youtu.be/​3jUfK5i_lQs.

  Briggs, Chad S., Jody L. Sundt, and Thomas C. Castellano. “The Effect of Supermaximum Security Prisons on Aggregate Levels of Institutional Violence.” Criminology 41 (2003): 1341–76.

  Bureau of Justice Statistics. “FAQ Detail: What Is the Probability of Conviction for Felony Defendants?” Accessed May 25, 2015. http://www.bjs.gov/​index.cfm​?ty=qa&iid=403.

  Butler, Paul. “On Trayvon Martin and Racial Profiling.” Daily Beast, March 26, 2012. http://www.thedailybeast.com/​articles/2012​/03/26/paul-​butler-on-trayvon-​martin-and-racial-profiling.html.

  Cacioppo, John T., and Louise C. Hawkley. “Perceived Social Isolation and Cognition.” Trends in Cognitive Sciences 13, no. 10 (2009): 447–54.

  Cal. Penal Code § 1170.12 (West 2014).

  Cannon, Carl M. “Petty Crime, Outrageous Punishment.” Reader’s Digest, October 2005.

  Caplan, Lincoln. “The Random Horror of the Death Penalty.” New York Times, January 7, 2012.

  Carlsmith, Kevin M., and John M. Darley. “Psychological Aspects of Retributive Justice.” Advances in Experimental Psychology 40 (2008): 193–236.

  Carson, E. Ann. U.S. Department of Justice. Prisoners in 2013. September 2014.

  Carson, E. Ann, and Daniela Golinelli. U.S. Department of Justice. Prisoners in 2012: Trends in Admissions and Releases, 1991–2012. December 2013.

  Chemerinksy, Erwin. “Cruel and Unusual: The Story of Leandro Andrade.” Drake Law Review 52 (2003): 1–24.

  Chemerinsky, Erwin. “3 Strikes Reform in CA: ‘Victory for Common Sense.’ ” Crime Report, December 6, 2012. http://www.​thecrimereport.org/​viewpoints​/2012-12-three-strikes​-reform-in-california​-a-victory-for-hum.

  Darley, John, Sol Fulero, Craig Haney, and Tom Tyler. “Psychological Jurisprudence.” In Taking Psychology and Law into the Twenty-First Century, edited by James R. P. Olgoff. New York: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2004.

  Death Penalty Information Center. “Executions by Year Since 1976.” Accessed May 24, 2014. http://www.deathpenaltyinfo.org/​executions-year.

  Devereaux, Ryan. “Prisoners Challenge Legality of Solitary Confinement Lasting More Than a Decade.” Guardian, May 31, 2012.

  Dickens, Charles. American Notes. London: Chapman and Hall, 1842.

  Donahue, John J., III. “Capital Punishment in Connecticut, 1973–2007: A Comprehensive Evaluation from 4866 Murders to One Execution.” Working Paper, Stanford Law School, National Bureau of Economic Research, June 8, 2013.

  Eastern State Penitentiary. “Facade: Online 360 Tour.” Accessed May 25, 2014. http://www.easternstate​.org/​explore/online-360-tour.

  Eastern State Penitentiary. “FAQ, Terror Behind the Walls.” Accessed May 13, 2014. http://www.easternstate.org/​halloween/visit/faq.

  Eastern State Penitentiary. “History of Eastern State: General Overview.” Accessed May 16, 2014. http://www.easternstate.org/​learn/research​-library/history.

  Eastern State Penitentiary. “Home, Terror Behind the Walls.” Accessed May 13, 2014. http://www.​easternstate.org/​halloween.

  Eastern State Penitentiary. “Timeline.” Accessed May 15, 2014. http://www.easternstate.org/​learn/​timeline.

  Eastern State Penitentiary. “2013 Schedule and Prices, Terror Behind the Walls.” Accessed May 13, 2014. http://www.easternstate.org/​halloween/visit/​schedule-prices.

  Eastern State Penitentiary. “VIP Experiences, Terror Behind the Walls.” Accessed May 13, 2014. http://www.easternstate.org/​halloween/eastern-state​-after-dark-vip-tour.

  “Eastern State Penitentiary.” USHistory.org. Accessed May 15, 2014. http://www.ushistory.org/​tour/​eastern-state-penitentiary.htm.

  Ewing v. California. 538 U.S. 11 (2003).

  Federal Bureau of Investigation. “Offenses Cleared.” In Uniform Crime Report: Crime in the United States, 2010. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of Investigation, 2011.

  Folger, Robert, and S. Douglas Pugh. “The Just World and Winston Churchill: An Approach/Avoidance Conflict About Psychological Distance When Harming Victims.” In The Justice Motive in Everyday Life, edited by Michael Ross and Dale T. Miller. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002.

  Fried, Barbara H. “Beyond Blame: Would We Be Better Off in a World Without Blame?” Boston Review, June 28, 2013.

  Friends of HOPE. “Hope: Hawaii’s Opportunity Probation with Enforcement.” Accessed May 25, 2014. http://hopehawaii.net/​index.html.

  Gawande, Atul. “Hellhole: The United States Holds Tens of Thousands of Inmates in Long-Term Solitary Confinement. Is This Torture?” New Yorker, March 30, 2009.

  Gayathri, Amrutha. “US Only Western Country to Carry Out Capital Punishment Last Year, Ranks 5th Worldwide.” International Business Times, March 27, 2012.

  Gentleman, Amelia. “Inside Halden, the Most Humane Prison in the World.” Guardian, May 18, 2012.

  Getty, J. Arch, Gabor Rittersporn, and Victor Zemskov. “Victims of the Soviet Penal System in the Pre-War Years: A First Approach on the Basis of Archival Evidence.” American Historical Review 98 (Oct. 1993): 1017–49.

  Gibbons, John J., and Nicholas de B. Katzenbach. Confronting Confinement: A Report of the Commission on Safety and Abuse in America’s Prisons. New York: Vera Institute of Justice, 2006.

  Glaberson, William. “For 3 Years After Killing, Evidence Fades as a Suspect Sits in Jail.” New York Times, April 15, 2013.

  Glazek, Christopher. “Raise the Crime Rate.” N+1 Magazine, Winter 2012.

  Goode, Erica. “Senators Start a Review of Solitary Confinement.” New York Times, June 19, 2012.

  Goode, Erica. “U.S. Prison Populations Decline, Reflecting New Approach to Crime.” New York Times, July 25, 2013.

  Gopnik, Adam. “The Caging of America.” A Critic at Large (blog). New Yorker, January 30, 2012.

  “Grandstanding on Prisons in Texas.” New York Times, April 4, 2014.

  Gregg v. Georgia. 428 U.S. 153 (1976).

  Guttel, Ehud, and Doron Teichman. “Criminal Sanctions in the Defense of the Innocent.” Michigan Law Review 110 (2012): 597–645.

  Harmon, Katherine. “Brain Injury Rate 7 Times Greater Among U.S. Prisoners.” Scientific American, February 4, 2012.

  Hawaii State Judiciary. “HOPE Probation.” Accessed May 25, 2014. http://www.courts.state.hi.us/​special_projects/hope​/about_hope_probation.html.

  Hawken, Angela, and Mark Kleiman. Managing Drug Involved Probationers with Swift and Certain Sanctions: Evaluating Hawaii’s Hope. Washington, DC: National Criminal Justice Reference Services, 2009.

  Hawkley, Louise C., and John T. Cacioppo. “Loneliness Matters: A Theoretical and Empirical Review of Consequences and Mechanisms.” Annals of Behavioral Medicine 40 (2010): 218–27.

  Heacock v. Commonwealth. 323 S.E.2d 90 (Va. 1984).

  Holt-Lunstad, Julianne, Timothy B. Smith, and J. Bradley Layton. “Social Relationships and Morality Risk: A Meta-analytic Review.” PLOS Med 7 (2010): 1–23.

  Hrenchir, Tim. “Sebelius’ Son Sells Game Out of Cedar Crest.” Topeka Capital-Journal, January 26, 2008.

  International Centre for Prison Studies. “Canada, World Prison Brief.” Accessed May 16, 2014. http://www.prisonstudies.org/​country/canada.

  International Centre for Prison Studies. “Germany, World Prison Brief.” Accessed May 16, 2014. http://www.prisonstudies.org/​country/germany.

  International Centre for Prison Studies. “Highest to Lowest.” Accessed May 18, 2014. http://www.prisonstudies.org/​highest-to​-lowest (filtered by Prison Population Rate).

  International Centre for Prison Studies. “Iran, World Prison Brief.” Accessed May 18, 2014. http://www.prisonstudies.org/​c
ountry/iran.

  International Centre for Prison Studies. “United States, World Prison Brief.” Accessed May 16, 2014. http://www.prisonstudies.org/​country/united-​states-america.

  Internet Movie Database. “The Shawshank Redemption (1994): Quotes.” Accessed May 24, 2014. http://www.imdb.com/​title/tt0111161​/quotes?item=qt0470719.

  James, Doris J., and Lauren E. Glaze. U.S. Department of Justice. Mental Health Problems of Prison and Jail Inmates. September 2006.

  John Sebelius Art & Design. “Don’t Drop the Soap.” Accessed May 24, 2014. http://www.johnsebelius.com/​dontdropthesoap.html.

  Johnston, Norman. Eastern State Penitentiary: Crucible of Good Intentions. Philadelphia: Philadelphia Museum of Art for the Eastern State Penitentiary Task Force of the Preservation Coalition of Greater Philadelphia, 1994.

  Justice Center: The Council of State Governments. Improving Outcomes for People with Mental Illnesses Involved with New York City’s Criminal Court and Correction Systems. December 2012.

  Kahan, Paul. Eastern State Penitentiary: A History. Charleston, SC: History Press, 2008.

  Kaiser, David, and Lovisa Stannow. “Prison Rape and the Government.” New York Review of Books, March 24, 2011.

  Katz, Lawrence, Steven D. Levitt, and Ellen Shustorovich. “Prison Conditions, Capital Punishment, and Deterrence.” American Law and Economics Review 5 (2003): 318–43.

  Keim, Brandon. “Solitary Confinement: The Invisible Torture.” Wired, April 29, 2009. http://www.wired.com/​2009/04/​solitaryconfinement/.

  Kohn, David. “Three Strikes: Penal Overkill in California?” CBS News, October 28, 2002. http://www.cbsnews.com/​news/three​-strikes-28-10-2002/.

  Lappi-Seppälä, Tapio. “Penal Policy in Scandinavia.” Crime and Justice 36 (2007): 217–93.

  Lieberman, Matthew D. Social: Why Our Brains Are Wired to Connect. New York: Random House, 2013.

  Liptak, Adam. “Inmate Count in U.S. Dwarfs Other Nations’.” New York Times, April 23, 2008.

  Llanos, Miguel. “Crime in Decline, but Why? Low Inflation Among Theories.” NBC News. September 20, 2011. http://www.nbcnews.com/​id/44578241/ns​/us_news-crime_and_courts​/t/crime-decline​-why-low-inflation-among-theories​/#.U4EH_V4tpcN.

  Lockyer v. Andrade. 538 U.S. 63 (2003).

  Mauer, Marc. “Is the ‘Tough on Crime’ Movement on Its Way Out?” MSNBC.com, May 5, 2014. http://www.msnbc.com/​msnbc/sentencing-reform​-the-end-tough​-crime.

  McCleland, Jacob. “The High Costs of High Security at Supermax Prisons.” NPR, June 19, 2012. http://www.npr.org/​2012/06​/19/155359553/the-high-​costs-of-high-security-at-supermax-prisons.

  Mears, Daniel P. “Supermax Prisons: The Policy and the Evidence.” Criminology and Public Policy 12 (2013): 681–719.

  Milgram, Stanley. Obedience to Authority: An Experimental View. New York: Harper & Row, 1974.

  Miller, John. “ ‘A Suffering People’: English Quakers and Their Neighbours, c. 1650—c. 1700.” Past and Present 188 (2005): 71–103.

  “The Myth of Deterrence.” New York Times, April 27, 2012.

  Nadler, Janice. “Flouting the Law.” Texas Law Review 83 (2005): 1399–1441.

  Nagin, Daniel S. “Deterrence in the 21st Century: A Review of the Evidence.” In Crime and Justice: An Annual Review of Research, edited by Michael Tonry. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2013.

  National Association for the Advancement of Colored People. Misplaced Priorities: Over Incarcerate, Under Educate, 2nd ed. Baltimore: National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, 2011.

  National Institute of Justice. “Five Things About Deterrence.” September 12, 2014. http://nij.gov/​five-things/Pages/deterrence.aspx?utm_source=eblast-govdelivery&​utm_medium=eblast​&utm_campaign=five+things​-deterrence.

  National Institute of Justice. “Program Profile: Hawaii Opportunity Probation with Enforcement (HOPE).” Accessed May 25, 2015. http://www.crimesolutions.gov/​ProgramDetails​.aspx?ID=49.

  National Research Council. Deterrence and the Death Penalty. Edited by Daniel S. Nagin and John V. Pepper. Washington, DC: National Academies Press, 2012.

  National Standards to Prevent, Detect, and Respond to Prison Rape. 28 C.F.R. pt. 115 (2012).

  “New York Rethinks Solitary Confinement.” New York Times, February 20, 2014.

  Penn Medicine. “Pennsylvania Hospital History: Stories: Dr. Benjamin Rush.” Accessed May 15, 2014. http://www.uphs.​upenn.edu/​paharc/features​/brush.html.

  Pew Center on the States. State of Recidivism: The Revolving Door of America’s Prisons. Washington, DC: Pew Center on the States, 2011.

  Pew Charitable Trusts. Collateral Costs: Incarceration’s Effect on Economic Mobility. Washington, DC: Pew Charitable Trusts, 2010.

  Pizarro, Jesenia M., Kristen M. Zgoba, and Sabrina Haugebrook. “Supermax and Recidivism: An Examination of the Recidivism Covariates Among a Sample of Supermax Ex-Inmates.” Prison Journal 94 (2014): 180–97.

  Resnick, Brian. “Chart: One Year at Prison Costs More Than One Year at Princeton.” Atlantic, November 1, 2011. http://www.theatlantic.com/​national/archive​/2011/11​/chart-one-year​-of-prison-​costs-more-than-one​-year-at-princeton/​247629/.

  Resnick, Judith, and Jonathan Curtis-Resnick. “Abolish the Death Penalty and the Supermax, Too.” Slate, June 18, 2012. http://hive.slate.com/​hive/how-can-we​-fix-constitution/​article/abolish-​the-death-penalty-and​-the-supermax-too.

  “Reviving Clemency, Serving Justice.” New York Times, April 23, 2014.

  Ridgeway, James, Jean Casella, and Sal Rodriguez. “Senators Finally Ponder the Question: Is Solitary Confinement Wrong?” Mother Jones, June 19, 2012.

  Robinson, Paul H., and John M. Darley. “The Role of Deterrence in the Formulation of Criminal Law Rules: At Its Worst When Doing Its Best.” Georgetown Law Journal 91 (2003): 950–51.

  Robinson, Paul H., Geoffrey P. Goodwin, and Michael D. Reisig. “The Disutility of Injustice.” New York University Law Review 85 (2010): 1940–2033.

  Robinson, Paul H., Sean E. Jackowitz, and Daniel M. Bartels. “Extralegal Punishment Factors: A Study for Forgiveness, Hardship, Good Deeds, Apology, Remorse, and Other Such Discretionary Factors in Assessing Criminal Punishment.” Vanderbilt Law Review 65 (2012): 737–826.

  Roper v. Simmons. 543 U.S. 551 (2005).

  Savage, Charlie. “Justice Dept. Seeks to Curtail Stiff Drug Sentences.” New York Times, August 12, 2013.

  Savage, David G. “Supreme Court to Hear Three-Strikes Challenge.” Los Angeles Times, April 2, 2002.

  The Shawshank Redemption. Directed by Frank Darabont. Burbank, CA: Warner Brothers Pictures, 1994.

  “Smarter Sentencing.” New York Times, August 13, 2013.

  Subramanian, Ram, and Alison Shames. Sentencing and Prison Practices in Germany and the Netherlands: Implications for the United States. New York: Vera Institute of Justice, 2013.

  Tapley, Lance. “The Worst of the Worst: Supermax Torture in America.” Boston Review, November 1, 2010.

  Torrey, E. Fuller, Aaron D. Kennard, Don Eslinger, Richard Lamb, and James Pavle. More Mentally Ill Persons Are in Jails and Prisons Than Hospitals: A Survey of the States. Arlington, VA: Treatment Advocacy Center, 2010.

  UNICEF, Children at Risk in Central and Eastern Europe: Perils and Promises. Florence, Italy: United Nations Children’s Fund, International Child Development Centre, 1997.

  Weaver, Kimberlee, Stephen M. Garcia, and Norbert Schwarz. “The Presenter’s Paradox.” Journal of Consumer Research 39 (2012): 445–60.

  Weiser, Benjamin. “New York State in Deal to Limit Solitary Confinement.” New York Times, February 19, 2014.

  Wolfers, Justin. “Life in Prison, with the Remote Possibility of Death.” New York Times, July 18, 2014.

  11. WHAT WE MUST OVERCOME ~ THE CHALLENGE

  “About the Advocates.” The Advocates. Accessed May 4, 2014. http://www.theadvocates.com/​philosophy.​htm.

  Alcind
or, Yamiche. “Officer Testimony No Slam Dunk for Zimmerman Prosecutors.” USA Today, July 2, 2013.

  American Society of Trial Consultants. “Areas of Consulting.” Accessed May 4, 2014. http://www.astcweb.org/​public/article​.cfm/areas-​of-consulting.

  American Society of Trial Consultants. “History and Goals.” Accessed May 4, 2014. http://www.astcweb.org/​public/article.​cfm/​society-goals.

  American Society of Trial Consultants. The Professional Code of the American Society of Trial Consultants. 2013.

  Bloomberg News. “Stewart Sued by Jury Consultant for $74,047 in Fees.” Chicago Tribune, November 18, 2005.

  Bond v. United States. 529 U.S. 334 (2000).

  Buckley, Cara. “State’s Witnesses in Zimmerman Trial Put the Prosecution on the Defensive.” New York Times, July 2, 2013.

  Carbado, Devon W., Cheryl I. Harris, and Kimberle Williams Crenshaw. “Racial Profiling Lives On.” New York Times, August 14, 2013.

  Corenevsky v. Superior Court. 682 P.2d 360 (Cal. 1984).

  Crocker, Caroline B., and Margaret Bull Kovera. “Systematic Jury Selection.” In Handbook of Trial Consulting, edited by Richard L. Wiener and Brian H. Bornstein. New York: Springer, 2011.

  Early, Kate. “The Impact of Pretrial Publicity on an Indigent Capital Defendant’s Due Process Right to a Jury Consultant.” Roger Williams University Law Review 16 (2011): 687–722.

  Edwards, Tamsin. “Climate Scientists Must Not Advocate Particular Policies.” Guardian, July 31, 2013.

  Equal Justice Initiative. Illegal Racial Discrimination in Jury Selection: A Continuing Legacy. Montgomery, AL, 2010.

  Frederick, Jeffrey T. “Social Science Involvement in Voir Dire: Preliminary Data on the Effectiveness of ‘Scientific Jury Selection.’ ” Behavioral Sciences and Law 2 (1984): 375–94.

  Garrett, Brandon L. Convicting the Innocent: Where Criminal Prosecutions Go Wrong. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2011.

  Geders v. United States. 425 U.S. 80 (1976).

  Gilliam v. State. 629 A.2d 685 (Md. 1993).

  Gobert, James J., Ellen Kreitzberg, and Charles H. Rose III. Jury Selection: The Law, Art and Science of Selecting a Jury. Eagen, MN: West, 2009.