Sadly these were the politics of the 1980s. Dog eat dog: an ‘enterprise culture’ becoming a contract culture with its noose growing ever tighter around the neck of community spirit. Arrogance and rudeness replaced courtesy and integrity. The message was loud and clear – ‘Look after Number One’. This brought out the least attractive aspects of the British character. Greed and self-interest came first: the weakest could go to the wall. One immediate and obvious symptom of the new establishment was the way that political mistakes were covered up at almost any cost. The British model of ‘firm but fair’ was replaced by a dictatorial arrogance. An early casualty of this approach was defence policy.
John Nott was a hatchet man appointed to sort out any ‘old buffers’ still prepared to stand their ground. He had the advantage of being able to rely on powerful political allies and the Civil Service. None of them had much respect for the intellect of senior serving officers. The mission was to stop inter-service rivalry and massively to cut the cost of procurement. This policy led directly to the bloody nose we received when the Argentines invaded the Falklands.
Did we learn from our mistakes? I don’t think so. Every year the axe falls more heavily and Whitehall continues to bungle. The Prime Minister is poorly advised, and government departments are put through the mangle as never before. The theory is that if you reorganize and restructure regularly enough things will eventually get better. This is a smokescreen. Changes that do not address fundamental management and commitments first – purposeful channels of communication and a thorough understanding of what is expected of each department and individual within it – are doomed. Sometimes it feels as if we are all invited to take part in a massive game of Musical Chairs: every time the music stops, some poor bastard is out on his ear. Perhaps this begins to explain why our confidence and self-respect as a nation is often low, and why our standing in the world continues to decline at a pace that few would have thought possible a generation ago.
I probably feel these things strongly because I have a real sense of pride in my country and pride in my service. I’m not a political animal in any formal sense. I have never been associated with a political party. But from my upbringing and later experiences I’ve formed an unshakeable belief that given the opportunity (and the right kind of leadership) we do things very well. There are still roots of excellence everywhere and we have young men and women of ability and commitment. But it’s not enough. We need leaders of vision and integrity. We should encourage initiative. We should not be frightened to shout down those who constantly say, ‘Better not’. Above all, we should have courage and we should care. All these qualities can be found in our history and traditions. And what happened in the Falklands in 1982 was proof that these foundations of British character still exist.
I was promoted to Captain RN in December, 1979, and appointed to command HMS Endurance in May, 1980. I had just completed two years with the Ministry of Defence and had already enjoyed a number of sea-going commands. Endurance was considered to be a special appointment. Certainly it was unlike any other command. It was considered necessary to be briefed by the appropriate departments of the Foreign and Commonwealth Office. There were also briefings from the British Antarctic Survey and Scott Polar Research Institute at Cambridge. Finally there were the ‘normal’ military courses which are an integral part of any Naval sea command.
Ironically, just a few months before the Endurance appointment, I joined the Maritime Tactical School for a special study period where we considered defence aspects of a Task Force at sea. One of our main recommendations was ‘Air Early Warning’ for the fleet. The demise of the carriers Ark Royal and Eagle meant that we had lost the fixed-wing Gannet aircraft, our tactical eye in the sky. The Harriers and helicopters that were to play such an important part in the Falklands Conflict were not fitted with Air Early Warning equipment. This meant that the British taskforce had to rely solely on shipborne radar which could only detect an incoming raid up to 200 miles. In tactical terms this could be described as a Local Warning System. Sadly, it proved largely ineffective as the enemy aircraft often approached close to the surface of the sea below radar cover. The recommendations of the Maritime Tactical School were digested by the appropriate departments in both the MOD and by the Commander in Chief’s staff at Northwood. No action was taken. We also expressed reservations about the reliability of the Air Defence Missile, the Sea Dart System, though there was genuine enthusiasm about the short-range Sea Wolf because of its speed and accuracy.
It’s easy to be wise after the event, but when the British Task Force was put to the test these observations proved to be prophetic. Again, with the benefit of hindsight, it is fair to claim that the Task Force performed admirably despite these major deficiencies in our armoury.
At least some lessons have been learned. Some Sea King helicopters were later fitted with Air Early Warning Radar and the Sea Dart System has been upgraded. It’s also true to say that satellite surveillance and the shipborne intelligence systems have improved almost beyond recognition. But why did it take a war and the associated loss of life to convince our moguls that the Navy should be provided with the fundamental tools of the trade?
I had been invited to join a most exclusive club. My officers and ship’s company were not much different from those of the Shackleton era, or any of those courageous ships’ companies in the 1939–45 War. What we saw once again was Britain at her best in a backs-to-the-wall situation.
It’s an odd thing. Here is a story about party political arrogance, ill-judged frugality in government departments and the incompetence of mandarins in the corridors of power. But it is also a tale of extraordinary loyalty to Queen and Country and a highly professional fighting service. And, for my money, the officers and men of the Endurance matched up to the highest traditions of the Royal Navy.
Chapter 1
SOUTH ATLANTIC BRIEFING
Until the Conflict I think it is true to say that very few British people knew where the islands were, or indeed that they were British. Those who had heard of the Falklands most frequently placed the island group somewhere off the west coast of Scotland.
I had already seen for myself that Argentina was a nation of great culture and a proud historical tradition, and, even under the Junta, was probably one of Britain’s closest allies outside the Commonwealth. The Conflict of 1982 focused attention on a neglected and little understood, part of the world. Until that time British politicians had taken what they would certainly have claimed to be a firm stand on behalf of the Falkland islanders. Significantly, however, they had avoided any decision over sovereignty. In part this was to avoid damaging relations with Argentina, or worse still causing provocation, but it was never clear what the Argentines would do if provoked.
The Falkland question is one aspect of a much larger problem – the political and economic future of the South Atlantic region. The economic potential of the area, has always been promising and since the Conflict it has lived up to the most optimistic forecasts.
My preparations before joining HMS Endurance in 1980 had filled me with enthusiasm. I was longing to get south and work in that extraordinary environment. But no preparation, however thorough, can adequately prepare for the magic of the Antarctic. It can be never less than a privilege to catch a scent of the pioneering exploits of men like Amundsen, Scott, Shackleton, Fuchs, and Hempleman-Adams. There were the modern luminaries too, many of whom I have had the privilege to come to know. Stephen Venables, Monica Kristianson and Ranulph Fiennes continued a tradition of Antarctic heroism. And, there is a marvellous heroic link through the late Lord Shackleton, and his father, Sir Ernest.
Sharing a similar wealth of experience, and a deep understanding of wild life of the region is Lord Buxton, the former head of Anglia Television and the Independent Television Authority. I was also greatly influenced by Dr Richard Laws, the Director of the British Antarctic Survey, Dr John Heap, who led the Polar Department at the FCO, and Robin Fearn who was responsible for S
outh America and the Falklands at the Foreign and Commonwealth Office.
Charles Swithinbank and the late Nigel Bonner at the British Atlantic Survey were instrumental in helping me to understand the scientific ambitions of British exploration. They also passed on their unquenchable thirst for further knowledge. This has stood me in good stead ever since.
The wild places of the world all have their special magic. During two sea-going commissions in the Middle East I had come to learn something of the Bedouins and nomads of those vast desert tracts. That was during the 60s, and it seemed to me that they were much the better for having assimilated little of ‘modern civilisation.’
But the Antarctic is the wildest and most beautiful desert on earth. There are no nomadic tribes and no disease. In the Antarctic there are very different environmental hazards – from wind, sea, ice and intense cold.
But there is life there aplenty – untamed and, for the most part, unexploited. Here too a permanent ‘deep freeze’ creates unexpected problems. Garbage, for instance, survives for years and so must be burnt. Climatic changes are more sudden than anywhere else within my experience, and when the weather seriously misbehaves sea conditions in the South Atlantic are probably more severe than anywhere else on earth.
The four and a half million square miles of the Antarctic are uniquely isolated. Much of the rock surface beneath the ice is below sea level, so the sheer volume of frozen water is almost unimaginable. One calculation suggests that if the ice cap should melt the mean sea level around our planet would rise by 100 metres. For me that figure is perhaps the best possible illustration of the threat of global warming.
‘Endurance’ is a symbolic name. The first Endurance – of Sir Ernest Shackleton’s expedition of 1914–16 – was marooned and crushed in the Weddell Sea. But Shackleton’s complete company survived after he and five others battled 800 miles from Elephant Island to South Georgia to find assistance. Shackleton had been a member of Scott’s 1901 expedition, but this was his finest hour. In the darkest days of 1982 we were very short of food and pursued by the Argentine Navy in weather that was perfectly bloody. I called for that ‘extra little bit of British grit.’ The Ernest Shackleton story was all the inspiration we needed.
I also came to understand the wider role of the Navy in the Antarctic. Indeed the name of the ship itself provided some pointers. The first Endurance had been bought by Shackleton for the purpose of exploration. Soon enough the name became synonymous with bravery and leadership, and, quite literally, endurance. I began to understand what a privilege it was to follow this tradition.
Dr John Heap’s Foreign Office briefing was meticulous. The US-brokered 1961 Antarctic Treaty was one of the few that actually worked. ‘British Antarctica’ had no more recognition than the territorial claims of Chile and Argentina. The continent was in effect a No Man’s Land where national sovereignty did not apply. In theory this meant there should be no political dimension other than the co-operation of the various national organizations in the interest of science. In theory too the exchange of information could be more complete, or at least more open, than in any other situation in the world. And to a very large extent that level of co-operation did exist. When unfettered by political directives, scientists are the first to recognize that vested interests are well served through co-operation.
Atmospheric science was also a well-established discipline in our Antarctic bases. It was the British Antarctic Survey who ‘discovered’ the hole in the ozone layer in the early 1980s. As the climatic and meteorological impact began to be calculated there was a bandwagon of publicity. One impact of this, following the Conflict, was that quite a large grant was given to the Antarctic Survey. Until that time research funding had been sparse. That momentum has been sustained. Increasing concern about global warming, skin cancer, and other problems associated with ozone holes, means that there is now a multinational dimension and commitment to Antarctic atmospheric research.
Antarctica has a considerable impact on climatic conditions throughout the world. It is often argued that an understanding of the world’s weather could properly begin with the cold continent. There is earth science evidence (the Gondwana Theory) which suggests that the geological provinces of the southern continents could be matched across the intervening oceans, providing evidence of the former conjunction of these land masses. One example of this is the way the Andes extend geologically into the Antarctic peninsula. The inevitable geophysical conclusion of this is that Antarctica must hold vast mineral wealth. Statistically this is likely to be equivalent to the total of mineral resources already found in the Andes, South Africa, India and Australia. It was calculated by the US Geological Survey that over 900 economic mineral deposits exist on the continent, although only twenty-one of these are likely to occur in ice free areas. Similarly the hydrocarbon deposits, already discovered in southern continents, are likely to be mirrored in Antarctica. Known resources include large quantities of mineral ores, particularly iron and copper. Gold and silver have also been discovered, and the coal deposits are enormous.
The Antarctic Treaty created a moratorium on mineral exploitation. Intensified exploration would have a major impact on the environment, so consequently the full extent of the South Atlantic’s natural resources remain largely a matter of speculation.
The potential of icebergs as a source of water is also well known. Ice forms 98 per cent of the earth’s fresh water resources. Antarctica contains 90 per cent of the world’s ice, and therefore 88 per cent of the world’s fresh water. The annual iceberg production by ice shelves and glaciers fringing the continent is vast. Although it is considered impractical to tow icebergs to continents in the southern hemisphere, it is possible, even plausible, that ice could become an economic resource for water and energy.
It is equally well known that active and dormant volcanoes are associated with sulphur deposits. There is considerable fumarolic activity in the South Sandwich Islands. As yet there has been no study made of the quantity of available sulphur.
Within the South-West Atlantic the main life resources could be categorized as whales, seals, birds, fish, krill and squid. The harvesting of whales began a century ago, peaked in the mid-1930s, then diminished. Seal stocks were not seriously reduced during the early part of this century, and are not exploited today. Penguins were taken for oil on some islands but there is little likelihood of future exploitation.
Krill, a prawn-like plankton, is the cornerstone of the ecosystem. The squid industry has already progressed from just a few ships to large fleets from Spain, the Far East and Argentina. Fishing has been heavy in some areas, with krill fished experimentally since the early 1960s. More recently the Russians and Japanese have been harvesting krill on a limited commercial basis. In 1980 the squid had hardly been exploited, but catches have risen steadily. In Lord Shackleton’s second (1992) report it was noted that Antarctic krill appeared to be the world’s biggest known source of animal protein. 15 per cent of krill weight is protein, a similar value to fillet steak.
The Antarctic Survey had at the time completed a number of studies which estimated the potential annual sustainable yield at between 100 and 150 million tonnes. A very substantial proportion of this appears to occur within a 200-mile band between South Georgia and the Antarctic Peninsula. The swarms contain about 500 individuals per cubic foot of water. This density makes them look from the air like a red oil slick. Catching krill, as we found in Endurance, was relatively simple. The major difficulty is in avoiding crushing them as the catch is hauled onto the deck. Krill looks and tastes like prawn, but once caught must be processed within four hours. They cannot simply be frozen because digestive enzymes within the krill work at very low temperatures. This means first boiling, then removing the shells. The shelf life of krill processed in this way is three to four months. To make harvesting economic the quantities taken must be large, and the sale and distribution swift. The remoteness of the fishing grounds mitigate against this, but the developing demand (p
articularly in the Far East and Spain) makes it likely that the days of large-scale harvesting are not far away.
Commercial exploitation of Antarctic fish is a relatively recent activity. Notofinia probably makes up about three quarters of the coastal catch. Sample scoops include eels and sea-snails, rat-tailed fish, cod-like specimens and skate. These once existed in larger quantities off South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands, but were largely fished out by the former Eastern Block countries. There are still reasonable stocks of blue whiting and Patagonian hake.
But since 1982 it is the squid industry that has brought a measure of prosperity to the Falklands. Until recent years the prospect of the Argentines exploiting these fisheries was very small. They are not a nation of great fish eaters, and most of the stock demand is taken from the River Plate and northern coastal areas of Argentina. But the market is such that the Argentines do now fish for squid outside the 150 mile (latterly 200 mile) Falkland zone. They also follow the available data on squid stocks and take an active part in international discussions on stocking levels.
An additional resource for the future may be the larger algae. It is possible to extract the Giant Seaweed (kelp) and to produce a wide range of products used mainly in the food, drink, textile, rubber and paper industries. However, synthetic substitutes have in many cases been so efficient that the alginate industry has not prospered. But the position could change. One company has approached the Falklands Islands Government on the subject of seaweed harvesting. It is estimated that this business could be worth £40,000 a year.
But even the limited data available in 1980 made it clear that the live resources were plentiful in the area around the islands and this gave considerable scope for the improvement of the Falklands economy. These prospects are being investigated. But, at the time of the Conflict, the total GNP of the Falklands was less than £4 million a year. The islands were simply not tooled up for the job. They did not have the right kind of fishing vessels, shore facilities, or the necessary air and sea connections. With the exploitation of the fin fish industry, and revenue from squid fishing licences, the islands’ income had risen to more than £30 million by 1985. Through this burgeoning of offshore activity, not anticipated even by the Shackleton reports, the political and strategic value of the islands has become considerably enhanced.
Beyond Endurance: An Epic of Whitehall and the South Atlantic Page 2
