US Presidents For Dummies

by Marcus Stadelmann

  In May 1898, the U.S. fleet destroyed a Spanish fleet at Manila, the capital of the Philippines. Two months later, the U.S. navy destroyed a second Spanish fleet in Cuba.

  The war was basically over. Spain agreed to negotiations, and the resulting Paris Treaty of 1898 gave the United States the Spanish colony of Puerto Rico, and sold the Philippines to the United States for $20 million. More than 500,000 Filipinos were killed during an uprising against new U.S. rule.

  During the Spanish-American War, fewer than 400 U.S. soldiers died in battle. However, thousands died from disease and inadequate provisions.

  Getting reelected and assassinated

  McKinley’s foreign policy proved to be popular with the U.S. public. He won reelection easily in 1900, defeating the Democrat William Jennings Bryan decisively for a second time. The only interesting fact about the 1900 presidential race was the question of who should be McKinley’s vice-presidential candidate. His old vice president, Garret A. Hobart, died in 1899, and McKinley left it up to the Republican convention to pick his new vice president. The convention chose Teddy Roosevelt because he was a war hero with great name recognition.

  Because Roosevelt was a progressive Republican (see the following section), a lot of Republicans considered him dangerous. They figured that if they made him vice president, an office with no powers attached to it, they could contain him and keep him out of the way. Only McKinley’s major advisor saw the danger in this strategy: Mark Hanna prophetically pointed out that just one life stood between Roosevelt and the presidency.

  On September 6, 1901, McKinley gave a speech at the Pan-American exposition in Buffalo, New York, and shook hands with the public afterwards. An anarchist by the name of Leon F. Czolgosz shot the president twice. McKinley clung to life, telling his closest advisors to be careful when presenting the news to his wife.

  McKinley died from his wounds a week later after telling his doctors, “It is useless, gentlemen. I think we ought to have a prayer.” Millions of people lined up to pay their respects to one of the country’s most popular presidents, as the train carrying the president’s body from New York to Ohio passed through. A month later, the federal government executed Leon Czolgosz for assassinating the president.

  Vice President Roosevelt rushed back from a camping trip to be sworn in as the next president of the United States.

  Building a Strong Foreign Policy: Theodore Roosevelt

  Theodore Roosevelt, shown in Figure 13-2, was one of America’s best presidents. He usually ranks in the top five of all presidents — a ranking he deserves. Roosevelt not only turned the United States into a true world power but he also began the long process of protecting the average U.S. citizen from the excesses of business. In the process, he increased the powers of the presidency, becoming the first strong president of the 20th century.

  The use of “Teddy” in reference to the president has come into modern usage, but Roosevelt detested the abbreviation of his name.

  In foreign policy, Roosevelt established the United States as a world power. He was not afraid to interfere in European affairs: He received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1906 for his work in that area. Roosevelt was the first U.S. citizen to win the award.

  Teddy Roosevelt was one of the most beloved presidents in the history of the United States. To honor Roosevelt, a German toy maker named a plush bear after him. Soon it became known worldwide as the “teddy bear.”

  Figure 13-2: Theodore Roosevelt, 26th president of the United States.

  Courtesy of the Library of Congress

  Growing up prosperous

  Theodore Roosevelt was born into money in 1858. His father was a wealthy banker in New York City. Young Roosevelt received the best possible education through private tutors. Family trips around the world stimulated his interest in world affairs. By the time he became a teenager, Roosevelt had lived in Europe and traveled to Africa.

  Roosevelt’s true love was the natural sciences. He turned into an outdoorsman early in life. He overcame his asthma and sickly physique, and became an ardent bodybuilder. He was able to transform himself into a mountain climber, wrestler, boxer, and hunter. In 1876, he entered Harvard and became an excellent student. He graduated at the top of his class four years later and went on to study law. Roosevelt hated law and eventually dropped out of Columbia law school. He published his first book on the Naval War of 1812 while at Columbia, though and many more books followed.

  Roosevelt married Alice Hathaway Lee in 1880, though on Valentine’s Day in 1884, Roosevelt suffered a crushing blow. His mother died of typhoid fever, and a few hours later, his wife died after giving birth to their daughter, Alice. Roosevelt left his daughter with his sister and moved west to the Dakota Territory to become a rancher and live the life of a cowboy. While working as a rancher, he continued to publish books on hunting and the outdoor life. He is the most published president in U.S. history, with 38 books to his credit.

  In 1885, Roosevelt ran into his childhood sweetheart, Edith Carow, and they fell in love again. A year later, they married and had five children together. Roosevelt returned to New York to continue his career in politics. When he finished third in a race for the governorship of New York, he was ready to retire from politics and live the life of an academic. More books followed, including his masterpiece, The Winning of the West, a four-volume work.

  Roosevelt’s early political career

  Teddy Roosevelt was a progressive Republican. The term progressive referred to reform-minded politicians who wanted to curb the abuse of power by politicians, political parties, and especially big business. The objective was to protect the average citizen from government and business, and make the United States a better place to live.

  Serving New York

  In 1881, Roosevelt became a member of the New York state legislature. His independent streak was visible right away when he exposed a corrupt judge. He worked well with the Democratic governor, Grover Cleveland, and later served in Cleveland’s presidential administration. His affiliation with Cleveland didn’t sit well with the Republican leadership. In 1884, Roosevelt refused to run for reelection, tired of his political and personal problems (his mother and wife both died on February 14 that year), and retired from politics.

  In 1888, Roosevelt returned to Republican politics, campaigning for Benjamin Harrison. When Harrison won the presidency, he appointed Roosevelt U.S. civil service commissioner. In this position, Roosevelt opposed patronage and advocated hiring people based on merit. Roosevelt’s job as commissioner was to go after federal agencies that handed out jobs based on party ties or friendship. Roosevelt did such an excellent job that Democratic president Grover Cleveland, after winning the presidency in 1892, decided to keep him on the job even though he was a Republican.

  In 1895, Roosevelt left the office to become the police commissioner for New York City. He went after corrupt police officers, and his reputation rose. Roosevelt disguised himself at night and went out on the streets to check that the police were doing an acceptable job. The public loved him for this tactic.

  Returning to national politics

  After the Republicans won the White House with McKinley in 1896, Roosevelt was ready for a return to the national scene. Roosevelt believed that the United States needed to become a great power. He thought that only a strong, powerful United States could survive against the great European powers. He also thought that the United States needed to expand and build up a powerful fleet to protect U.S. interests throughout the world.

  Roosevelt served in McKinley’s administration as the assistant secretary of the navy. He served well and put his effort into building up the branch. During this time, Roosevelt first envisioned building a United States–controlled canal through Central America. Then, the Spanish-American War broke out. (See the section on McKinley earlier in this chapter.)

  Founding the Rough Riders

  When the Spanish-American War broke out, Roosevelt longed to see action. Roosevelt, who was a captain
in the New York National Guard, resigned as assistant secretary and volunteered for the first U.S. volunteer cavalry, called the “Rough Riders.”

  Roosevelt’s unit landed in Cuba in June 1898. He and his men saw action soon after they landed. On July 1, 1898, Roosevelt led the famous charge at San Juan Hill (Roosevelt actually charged up Kettle Hill, but the battle is usually known as the battle at San Juan Hill). He took the hill despite losing a quarter of his men. The newspapers covered the charge prominently, and Roosevelt returned home a colonel and a national hero.

  Becoming governor of New York and vice president

  When Roosevelt returned home, the Republican Party asked him to run for governor of New York, believing that only he could win the race for the party. They were right — Roosevelt won a narrow victory.

  As governor, Roosevelt managed to alienate both business and labor: He alienated business by levying a tax on public service businesses, and labor by calling out the National Guard to put down labor unrest.

  The Republicans decided to get rid of Roosevelt. They figured that there was no better way to do that than to make him the vice president — a position without real power. Roosevelt knew that taking the position very likely would end his political career, but he accepted the vice-presidential nomination anyway.

  President Theodore Roosevelt (1901–1909)

  With the assassination of President McKinley in September 1901, Teddy Roosevelt suddenly found himself president — at the age of 42, he was the youngest president in history. Roosevelt brought a unique approach to the presidency, taking members of Congress, his cabinet, and even foreign dignitaries on walking and climbing trips.

  Roosevelt also managed to alienate both Republicans and Democrats fairly quickly. For example, he invited the black educator Booker T. Washington to dinner at the White House, making Washington the first black to dine in the executive mansion. This dinner invitation alienated white Southerners, who became his staunchest foes. Soon thereafter, he annoyed the Republican Party by intervening in the Pennsylvania coal strike.

  Roosevelt was aware that he acted against his party’s wishes many times. He was successful because he took his case to the U.S. public. He used the presidency as a bully pulpit — a venue for getting his message across. When the public backed him, Congress begrudgingly followed.

  President Theodore Roosevelt coined the name “White House” for the executive mansion. The term stuck and is still commonly used today.

  Interfering in the coal miners’ strike

  In 1902, 150,000 coal miners went on strike in Pennsylvania. They wanted better pay, a nine-hour workday, and the right to organize a union — the United Mine Workers. The owners refused to even discuss the matter.

  Roosevelt intervened without consulting Congress. He feared a coal shortage for the upcoming winter, so he called the mine owners to Washington, D.C. to discuss the issue. When the mine owners refused to compromise, Roosevelt threatened them. He told them that if they did not cooperate with an investigative commission, he would use federal troops to operate the mines. The owners caved in; arbitration finally took place. The next year, the mineworkers received a 10 percent pay increase, and the owners accepted the nine-hour workday. Roosevelt was successful, and the public loved it.

  Going after business

  For Roosevelt, the public good was what mattered. He realized that many businesses were hurting the U.S. public, so he took action. He went after the Northern Securities Company, a collection of several railroad companies that joined forces to regulate prices and reduce competition. Roosevelt used the Sherman Anti-Trust Act, passed in 1890, to dissolve the trust and protect the public. Roosevelt showed how he felt about railroad owners with these words: “A man who has never gone to school may steal from a freight car; but if he has a university education, he may steal the whole railroad.”

  Making his mark in foreign policy

  Roosevelt’s great love was foreign policy. He didn’t believe in isolationism. Instead, he wanted the United States to be a great power that pursued an active foreign policy.

  As president, Roosevelt had a chance to lay the foundation for his ideas. He believed in a “speak softly, and carry a big stick” foreign policy, where the United States would threaten other countries unless they pursed policies friendly and beneficial to the United States.

  At the same time, he rejected taking control of weaker foreign nations. During his presidency, Roosevelt was more interested in resolving international disputes peacefully than going to war. He settled a dispute with Great Britain over the Alaskan-Canadian border peacefully and refused to annex Cuba and the Dominican Republic, which many in the United States supported. The only exception was the Philippines, where Roosevelt opposed Filipino nationalists fighting U.S. control of their country.

  By 1904, Roosevelt put his foreign policy into place in the Roosevelt Corollary. The Roosevelt Corollary was an extension of the Monroe Doctrine. It stated that only the United States had the right to interfere in the affairs of the Americas — European powers needed to stay out. If a country in the Americas wronged a European power, the United States would take care of the problem. The United States was willing to act against any European power trying to take action in the Americas.

  Building the Panama Canal

  Roosevelt’s greatest foreign policy accomplishment was the building of the Panama Canal. The canal was one of his pet projects, and he did everything in his power to bring it about.

  Roosevelt signed a treaty with Great Britain that allowed the United States to construct and then control the canal. The canal would obviously boost world trade, and under U.S. control, it could be used as an instrument in making foreign policy.

  Colombia, who at the time controlled Panama, proved to be the major obstacle. The Columbians refused to accept the $10 million Roosevelt offered for the small strip he needed to build the canal. Roosevelt then initiated a little revolution in Panama against Columbian control.

  The Panamanians revolted in 1903. Roosevelt recognized the new country right away. He sent the navy to prevent Colombia from suppressing the revolt. As soon as the new Panamanian government was in power, it sold the United States a 10-mile strip of land to build the canal.

  The canal was not finished until 1914. The United States retained control of the canal until President Carter signed legislation in 1977 that returned the canal to Panama by 1999 (see Chapter 22 for more on the return of the canal).

  Winning reelection in 1904

  In 1904, there was no question about who would win the upcoming election. Roosevelt was at the height of his popularity, and the Democratic Party nominated a virtual unknown, Alton B. Parker of New York. Roosevelt won big, carrying 336 electoral votes. He only lost the South, which was still mad at him for inviting a black to dinner at the White House (refer to the preceding section, “President Theodore Roosevelt”). Roosevelt saw the election as a mandate and pushed for even more domestic reform in his second term.

  In 1904, President Roosevelt had a boxing match in the White House with heavyweight champion John L. Sullivan. The match was intense — Roosevelt lost his sight in one eye after a brutal hit by Sullivan.

  Continuing a successful foreign policy

  Roosevelt picked up where he left off in the area of foreign policy. In his second term, he accomplished the following:

  The Treaty of Portsmouth: In 1905, the Japanese and Russian empires went to war. Roosevelt decided that the United States should intervene and mediate between the two countries. Both countries agreed to U.S. mediation. The Treaty of Portsmouth settled the conflict and ended the war. Roosevelt received the Nobel Peace Prize for his successful mediation between the two empires.

  The Algiers Conference: In 1905, Germany and France almost went to war over Morocco. Roosevelt called for an international conference in 1906 to settle the dispute peacefully.

  The Gentleman’s Agreement: In 1906, the city of San Francisco started to segregate its school system. The c
ity’s program singled out Asians, especially Japanese immigrants. So Roosevelt and the Japanese empire reached an agreement in 1907, voluntarily restricting Japanese immigration to the United States.

  The Second Hague Conference: This conference, encouraged by Roosevelt, dealt with arms control and disarmament in 1907.

  The Great White Fleet: To show the rest of the world how powerful the U.S. navy was, Roosevelt sent it around the world in 1907. The tour was especially intended to impress the Japanese, which it did.

  Being progressive at home

  Roosevelt continued his reformist policies back home. His second term brought many reform acts that still have an impact on the United States today. Roosevelt’s reforms include

  The Meat Inspection Act (1906): This act, passed in 1906, mandated the inspection of meatpacking houses by the federal government.

  Roosevelt was especially interested in the meat industry. While fighting in the Spanish-American War, he observed the poor quality of meat the soldiers consumed. Many soldiers got sick after eating the meat. When Upton Sinclair published The Jungle, a novel that details the unsanitary conditions in the meat industry, in 1906, the U.S. public became outraged. Roosevelt tapped into the outrage and pushed for the successful passage of the Meat Inspection Act.