Examples of bullae with ‘Aten’ motifs, found in Israel, are described in an article by Robert Deutsch, ‘Lasting Impressions’, Biblical Archaeology Review, July/August (Washington, D.C.: Biblical Archaeology Society, 2002).
7. Sigmund Freud, Moses and Monotheism (London: The Hogarth Press, 1951).
8. Jan Assmann, Moses the Egyptian (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1997); Erik Hornung, Professor of Egyptology, University of Basel, in his book Idea into Image (New York: Timken Publishers, 1992), comes to many of the same conclusions about Akhenaten and the Hebrews.
9. Raymond Brown, Joseph Fitzmyer, Roland Murphy (eds.), The New Jerome Biblical Commentary (London: Cassell & Co., 1996).
10. Richard E. Friedman, Who Wrote the Bible?, (San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco,1997).
11. Many of the names in this group are Egyptian in origin. Korah, according to the Talmud (28 Peschi 18a) was treasurer to Pharaoh; On was the ancient name for Heliopolis, near Cairo, the traditional centre of theology in ancient Egypt.
12. Friedman, Who Wrote the Bible?
13. Ibid.
14. Whilst Professor Friedman believes Jeremiah was a Shilonite, and I am inclined to agree with this notion, he takes Ezekiel to be an Aaronite, a stance I do not agree with, as Professor Wacholder’s analysis tends to bear out. Ezekiel constantly refers to geographical locations in the North and says that Israel’s redemption will come from the North not the Aaronite South. Professor Friedman also concludes that the sections of the Old Testament that are identified as being authored by an Aaronite priestly group labelled P, comprising P1 - written before the First Temple was destroyed and before Deuteronomy, in the time of Hezekiah c.610 BCE - and P2, were added later. Professor Friedman ascribes his readings of P to Aaronite interests, but I am not so convinced. There are elements of Professor Friedman’s P that are more consistent with Shilonite ideas indicating the author is not so much anti-Moses but more interested in the original understanding of Akhenaten-style rejection of angels, anthropomorphisms, dreams and talking animals, whilst emphasising cosmic firmaments, and God’s omnipotence over Moses and Aaron. P also never mentions the Temple, but only talks about the Tabernacle. Why would a pro-Aaronite author of P ignore the Temple, the centre of their sphere of influence? The one thread that seems to help define the Shilonite thinking is their adherence to the Tabernacle as a main plank of their belief. Not surprising as the Tabernacle was their exclusive prerogative in earliest times and their exclusion form the Jerusalem Temple may well be the reason why they constantly ignored the Temple and denigrated it whilst it remained in the hands of those they considered illegitimate guardians. That is not to say that the concept of the Temple was not important to them, it was. Nevertheless the true Temple was to be in different hands and of different design.
15. Ben Zion Wacholder, verbal presentation made at the following conference: Dead Sea Scrolls – Fifty Years After Their Discovery, Congress in Jerusalem, July 1977.
16. A. Geiger, Urschrift und Ubersetzungen der Bibel (Brelau, 1857); Julius Wellhausen, Prolegomena zur Geschichte Israels, (Edinburgh: A. & C. Black, 1885).
17. Ben Zion Wacholder, Ezekiel and Ezekielianism as Progenitors of Essenianism, The Dead Sea Scrolls, Forty Years of Research, ed., Devorah Dimant and Uriel Rappaport (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1992).
18. Ibid.
19. A sect closely related to the Essenes, who were based near Alexandria and in the Valley of Natrun, in the Delta region of Egypt.
20. Assmann, Moses the Egyptian.
21. Meyer, Aegyptische Chronologie.
22. Assmann, Moses the Egyptian.
23. Philip R. Davies, Behind the Essenes - History and Ideology in the Dead Sea Scrolls, Program in Judaic Studies, No. 94 (Atlanta, Ga.: Scholars Press, 1987).
24. Shlomo Margalit, Aelia Capitolina, Judaica No. 45 (São Paulo: Capital Sefarad Editorial e Propaganda, Marz 1989).
25. Michael Chyutin, The New Jerusalem Scroll from Qumran - A Comprehensive Reconstruction, Journal for the Study of the Pseudepigrapha, Supplement Series 25, (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1997). The other city, also laid out in an orthogonal pattern, that Michael Chyutin considered might be a possible contender for the New Jerusalem Scroll temple, was Sesebi, in the southern Nubia area of Egypt. Strangely enough this was also a new build site developed by Pharaoh Akhenaten, where he was known as the ‘Lion of Nubia’, (Dr Robert Morkot, Akhenaten in Nubia, Egypt Exploration Society Meeting, SOAS, University College London, 27 February 2001). The information quoted draws on Michael Chyutin’s above study, on an article entitled The New Jerusalem Ideal City, Dead Sea Discoveries I, 1994; a critique by Dwight D. Swanson, Dead Sea Discoveries 6, 1999; e-mails from Michael Chyutin in December 2001.
26. John Kampen, ‘The Significance of the Temple in the Manuscripts of the Damascus Document’, The Dead Sea Scrolls at Fifty, Society of Biblical Literature, Qumran Section Meetings (Atlanta, Ga.: Scholars Press, 1999).
27. Ibid.
28. Yigael Yadin, The Temple Scroll (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1985).
29. Esther M. Menn, ‘Praying King and Sanctuary of Prayer Part 1; David and the Temple’s Origins in Rabbinic Psalms, Commentary Midrash Tehillim’, Journal of Semitic Studies, Vol. LII, No.1 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2001).
30. Serge Frolov, ‘King’s Law’ of the Temple Scroll; Mishnaic Aspects’, Journal of Jewish Studies, Vol. L, No. 2 (Cambridge: 1999).
31. Cyril Aldred, Akhenaten, King of Egypt (London: Thames & Hudson, 1996).
32. Robert Feather, private correspondence January, 1999, also BBC2 TV Documentary,The Pharaoh’s Holy Treasure, 31 March 2002.
33. S. Birch, Catalogue of the Collection of Egyptian Antiquities at Alnwick Castle (London: R. Clay & Sons, 1880).
34. Freud, Moses and Monotheism.
35. Messod and Roger Sabbah, Les Secrets de L’Exode (Paris: Jean-Cyrille Godefroy, 2001). Incidentally the authors also make out a strong case for the Massai tribe of Africa as being Akhenaten followers-descendants, reprising findings relating to the strange pseudo-Hebrew community at Elephantine, and the Falasha of Ethiopia.
36. God’s name appears in many forms in the Old Testament: as a Hebrew yod, vav and two heys; the double yod; Hashem, or just the Hebrew letter hey - the Name; Makom - Every Place; Adonai - Mastery; El; Eloha; Elohim; Shadai; Tsevaoit; Elohai. Jeremy Rosen, Not so Dashing, Jewish Chronicle, 11 May 2001.
37. Jacques Champollion, Grammaire Egyptienne (Paris: Solin, 1997).
38. ‘Ai’ is the first sounding syllable of the word Israel or Yisrael, as it appears in the Merneptah stela, dated to 1210 BCE - the first Egyptian representation of Israel, as a people. (The ‘Y’ sound equates to the Hieroglyph sound of the ‘double reed’ symbol - indicating supreme ruler of Upper and Lower Egypt, and perhaps equating to the ‘double Yod’, used in the Old Testament to indicate the ineffable name of God).
39. Birch, Catalogue of the Collection of Egyptian Antiquities at Alnwick Castle.
40. John Noble Wilford ‘Discovery of Egyptian Inscriptions Indicates an Earlier Date for Origins of the Alphabet’, New York Times, 13 November 1999; Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore (http://www.jhu.edu/news_info/news/home99/nov99/alpha.html).
(Frank Moore Cross, The Ancient Library of Qumran (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1995), cites examples in the Qumran texts where endings on verbs as ‘-a’ are restored, even in contexts where they do not belong. These vowel endings are survivals from ancient Canaanite, which in vernacular speech were lost about 1,200 BCE.)
41. Ibid.
42. Refer to note 5 for this chapter.
43. Émile Puech, ‘Les Deux Derniers Psaumes Davidiques du Rituel d’Exorcisme’, 11PsApa IV 4-V14’, The Dead Sea Scrolls – Forty Years of Research (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1992).
44. Kathleen M. Kenyon, The Bible and Recent Archaeology (London: British Museum Publications, 1987). Another drawing at Kuntillet Ajrud gives credence to a connection back to Aten for the
associated find. It shows a procession of five worshippers with arms extended in an attitude of upward adoration and near to the mouth of the leader in what appears to be an open hand - reminiscent of the hand of Aten seen on inscriptions at Amarna (P. Beck, The Drawings from Horvat Teiman (Kuntillet Ajrud), Tel Aviv 9 (Tel Aviv: Institute of Archaeology, Tel Aviv University, 1982 ).
45. Transcript of interview with Professor John Tait, at the Institute of Artchaeology, London, 21 December 2001.
46. Schiffman and Schiffman, And it Shall Come to Pass in the End of Days: An Agenda for the Future.
INDEX
Aaron, 32, 34, 118–19, 123–25, 130, 132–33, 140–41, 143, 182, 213, 218, 221–22, 286, 289
Ab, 109, 235, 256
Abimelech, King, 77
Abiram, 131, 287
Abraham (Abram, Ibrahim), 2, 32–33, 39, 45, 47, 67–75, 78–81, 93–96, 105–6, 116, 204, 209, 221–22, 250, 278–79, 337, 342–45
Absalom, 193–94
Abu Gurab, 189
Abu Simbel, 153
Abydos, 106
Abyssinia, 268, 272, 274
Accelerator Mass Spectroscopy (AMS), 3–4
Adam, 311
Admonitions Scroll, 163
Agade, 35
Aggadah, 126, 335
Ahaz, 230
Ahimelech, 140
Ahmose, 41, 51, 61
Ahmose El–Kab, 65
Ain Farah, 157
Akhenaten. See Amenhotep IV.
Akhetaten. See also El-Amarna; 85, 99, 101–2, 105–6, 111, 114, 123, 132, 133, 147, 152, 156–58, 167–68, 179, 180, 188–94, 200, 218, 224–55, 227, 231–34, 236–39, 255, 266, 270, 291, 320
as the ‘New Jerusalem,’ 143–48
comparisons with Elephantine Island, 259–62
possible treasure sites in, 171–74, 176–77, 182–83, 185–86
Akkadian, 12, 73, 259, 367
Akki, 35
Aksum, 270
Al Ahxsa, 162
Aldred, Cyril, 90–91, 295, 345–47, 353, 356–57, 363–65
Aleppo Codex, 331
Alexander, David, 343
Alexander, Pat, 42, 307, 352
Alexander the Great, 60, 122, 319
Alexandria, 105, 133–34, 245, 249, 257
Alkaabez, 108, 348
Allegro, John Marco, 11, 13–14, 18, 21, 44–45, 157, 166–68, 171, 175–80, 187–89, 191–93, 200, 332–34, 339–40, 353–55
Amanita Muscaria, 45
Amarna, El-. See also Akhetaten; 40, 55, 63–66, 72–73, 84–87, 98–102, 115, 148–49, 156, 158, 160, 168, 170, 172–74, 176, 180, 183, 187–89, 191–93, 208, 225, 227–28, 243, 262, 273
Amduat, 109, 243
Amen-hetep-neter-heqa-Uast, 280
Amenhotep I, 39, 61, 79–81, 83, 114–15
Amenhotep II, 59–63, 259, 266, 361
Amenhotep III, 61–62, 83, 106, 109, 134, 153, 218, 251, 264
Amenhotep IV (Akhenaten, Ikhanaton), 33, 63–65, 73, 77, 79, 84–93, 98, 100–101, 104–8, 112–17, 125, 127, 132, 133–35, 137, 142–46, 150, 152–53, 155–58, 160, 164–67, 170–74, 178, 181–83, 186, 193, 204–5, 210, 212–15, 218, 220–23, 226–27, 229–30, 232, 237, 239, 243, 248–50, 255, 257–61, 263, 279–80, 283, 289, 294, 299–300, 349, 353–58
Influence, 269–72
and the Patriarchs, 95–97, 102–5
religious beliefs, 84–91
Amenhotep family, 58, 60, 66, 92, 113, 116–17, 167, 201, 215, 224, 257–58, 260
Amenhotpe, son of Hapu, 134
Amenophis (Amenhotep or Amenhotpe), 117, 127, 134, 167
American School of Oriental Research, 9
Amhara, 269, 271
Amman, 12
Archaeological Museum, 12, 300
Ammonites, 350
Amon, 41, 55, 63, 65
Amorites, 68, 81
Amos, 140, 263–64, 266, 277
Amram, 35, 41, 132–33, 197, 219–20, 288
Amraphel, 77
amulets, 58, 92, 214
Amun, 84, 86, 106–7, 130
Amun-Ra (Amon-Re), 39, 86, 123
Anath, 55
Anatolia, 61, 73
Anderson, G. W., 69, 74, 77, 259–60, 342–44, 361
Andrea, Michelle, 18, 334
Anglican, 44
Aner, 81–82
Ani, 214, 250, 338
ankh, 290
Ankhesenpaten, 106
Ankhsheshonq, 248
Ank-Ma-Hor, 40, 130
Antiochus IV, 318–19
Antonia Fortress, the, 157
Anubis, 47
Anuket, 341
Any, 99
Aperu, 116
Apion, 134
apocalypse, 8, 203, 207
Apochrypha, 209, 291, 367
Apollo, 182
Apy, 85, 99
Aquila Bible, 209
Arabia, 263, 269
Arabic, 12, 268
Arad, Tell, 264
Araldite, 12
Aramaic, 12, 59, 132, 141, 146, 215, 220, 235, 252–54, 256, 259–61, 367
Aramaens, 257, 271
arbeitwerke, 114–15
Archimedes, 71, 344
Arizona
AMS Laboratory, 4
University of, 131
Arlington, Texas, 18
Ark of the Covenant, 16, 109, 123–26, 129, 131–32, 137, 140, 182, 225, 228–29, 271
arsenic, 26–27
Asenath, 97
Ashambethel, 264
Asher, 270
Ashera, 271, 299
Ashkelon, 135
Ashkenazi, 131
Ashmuneim, 103
Ashtaroth (Ashtoreth). See also Astorath; Astarte; 226, 229
Assiut, 102
Assmann, Jan, 244–45, 285, 290, 363–64
Assyria, 32, 42, 100, 115, 139, 241–42, 246, 257–58, 263, 271, 367
Astarte, 55, 31, 259–60, 264, 271, 361
Astorath, 221
Aswan, 256, 259, 268
Atbara, River, 100
Aten (Aton), 65, 84–87, 90–91, 99–100, 106–9, 111, 114–15, 134–37, 168, 170, 176, 189, 193, 207, 218, 222–27, 243, 296, 298–99
Athanasius, 245, 331
Atum, 51, 55, 56
Aumann, Moshe, 342
Avaris, 160, 339
Ay, 106, 130, 243
Azariah, Anani b., 263
Baal, 37, 229–31, 298
Babylon, 18, 32, 42, 129, 142–44, 205, 211, 288
Babylonians, 8, 17, 40, 72, 77, 142–43, 153, 162, 206, 257–61, 271, 319
Bagoas, 262
Bahr Yusuf, 102, 160
Baillet, M., 333
Baines, John, 354
Bakhtiari, 68–69
Bakhtyar, 70–71
Bannister, C. O., 335
Banu-yamina, 68
Bar Illan University, 283
Bar-Kochba, 351
Barnett, Mary, 353
Barthélemy, Dominique, 236, 332, 358
Baruch, 32, 287
Basel University, 245
Baumgartner, W., 360
Beck, P., 366
bedouin, 2, 37
Midianite, 36–37, 68
Mohammed edh-Dibh, 3
Taamirek tribe, 330
Beersheba, 71, 100
Belial, 222, 292
Ben Asher text, 301
Benben (Stone), 51, 178
Bender, Lionel, 362
Ben-Dor, Shoshana, 273, 362
Ben Ezra, 208
Beni Amran, 192
Benjamin, 95, 257
Benjamites, 66
Ben Shammen, 146
Ben Sira, 209
Ben-Tor, Amnon, 213
Benu-Yamina, 66
Bergman, S. H., 345
Berlin Museum, 259
Bes, 299
Bethel, 71, 94, 223, 230, 293
Bethlehem, 203, 293
Bezalel, 126
Bezalel Museum, 264
Bible, 35–37, 43, 46, 58, 67–69, 70–72, 75, 77–78, 91, 9
6, 98, 100, 102, 114, 116–17, 119–20, 122–23, 129–30, 133, 139, 163, 165, 172, 193, 205, 215–16, 218, 225, 238, 241–42, 246–47, 265, 271, 311
and Egyptian texts, 50–54
texts, 19, 74, 94, 119, 232, 243, 272
and Moses’ origins, 40–42
Biblical and Archaeological Museum, Jerusalem, 257
Bibliothéque Nacionale, 331
Birch, S., 365
Birmingham University, 51
Bitter Lakes, 122
Blackman, A. M., 187
Blank, Amy, 104, 347
Blazer, S., 350
Bluffton College, 292
Bonani, G., 331
Book of the Dead, 43, 46, 51, 214, 235
borax, 299
Bradman, N., 350
Bradman, R., 350
Bradshaw, Thomas, 334, 338
brass, 304, 312, 317
brazing, 25
Breasted, James Henry, 49, 90–91, 114, 344–46, 339, 345, 353, 357–59, 368
British Iron and Steel Corporation, 2
British Musem, 24, 39, 49, 114, 127, 165, 179, 235, 242, 251, 254, 304
Brizemeure, D., 336
bromine, 235
Bronowski, J., 70–71, 81, 342, 345
bronze, 23–24, 58, 70, 128, 335
Brooke, George, xviii–xx, 144–45, 232, 283–84, 332, 353, 358–59
Brooklyn Museum, 259, 263, 299
Broshi, Magen, 358
Brown University, 220
Brugsch, H., 242, 359
Brunel, Isambard Kingdom, 288
Buck, A. de, 341
Buddhist teaching, 43, 55, 66, 340
Budge, E.A. Wallis, 49, 114, 242, 338–39, 348, 357–59 Bunch, Bryan, 343
Caesar, Titus, 39
Cairo, 11, 62, 97, 109, 156, 178, 208–10, 217
Museum of, 26, 129, 147, 235
Cairo-Damascus Document, 181, 288
Calderini, Aristide, 167, 354
The Mystery of the Copper Scroll of Qumran Page 46
