by Peter Watson
17. Ibid., pages 51 and 558.
18. Joachim du Bellay, The Defence and Illustration of the French Language, translated by Gladys M. Turquet, London: Dent, 1939, pages 26ff and 80ff.
19. Ewert, Op. cit., page 19. French was spoken in England, at the court, in Parliament, and in the law courts, from the twelfth century to the end of the thirteenth, though it remained a court language until the fifteenth century and was not displaced by English in the records of lawsuits until the eighteenth.
20. Arnold Hauser, The Social History of Art, volume 3, New York: Vintage/Knopf, n.d., page 52.
21. Q. D. Leavis, Fiction and the Reading Public, London: Bellew, 1932/1965, page 83.
22. Ibid., pages 83–84 and William Chappell, Popular Music of the Olden Time, two volumes, London, 1855–1859.
23. Leavis, Op. cit., page 106; and see part 2, chapter 2, for the wide range of people who read Pilgrim’s Progress and Robinson Crusoe.
24. Hauser, Op. cit., page 53.
25. Ibid.
26. Leavis, Op. cit., pages 123 and 300.
27. Ibid., page 130. Other periodicals arrived as part of the same trend: the Gentleman’s Magazine was started in 1731, soon followed by the London Magazine, the Monthly Review in 1749, and the Critical Review in 1756.
28. Leavis, Op. cit., page 132.
29. Ibid., page 145.
30. Only Lucretius, with his early idea of evolution, can be said to have had an idea of progress.
31. Barnes, Op. cit., page 714.
32. Hampson, Op. cit., pages 80–82.
33. Roger Smith, The Fontana History of the Human Sciences, Op. cit., page 162.
34. Ibid., pages 158–159.
35. Ibid., page 162 and ref.
36. Alfred Cobban, In Search of Humanity: The Role of the Enlightenment in Modern History, London: Cape, 1960, page 69.
37. Boorstin, Op. cit., page 184.
38. Roger Smith, Op. cit., page 175.
39. Ibid., page 192.
40. Ibid., page 196.
41. Ibid., page 197; see Cobban, Op. cit., page 38, for Leibniz’ reluctance to accept some of Newton’s ideas.
42. Israel, Radical Enlightenment, Op. cit., especially pages 552ff.
43. Ibid., pages 436–437.
44. Cobban, Op. cit., page 210.
45. Ibid., page 208.
46. Ibid., page 211. Physiognomy became a craze in the late eighteenth century but a more enduring legacy of Kant’s approach was the founding of two journals in 1783. These were the Zeitschrift für empirische Psychologie (Journal for Empirical Psychology) and the Magazin für Erfahrungseelenkunde (Magazine for Empirical Knowledge of the Soul). With close links to medicine and physiology, this was another stage towards the founding of modern psychology.
47. Roger Smith, Op. cit., page 216.
48. Cobban, Op. cit., page 133.
49. L. G. Crocker, Nature and Culture: Ethical Thought in the French Enlightenment, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1963, pages 479ff.
50. Roger Smith, Op. cit., page 221.
51. J. O. de La Mettrie, Man a Machine, La Salle: Open Court, 1961, page 117. (Translated by G. C. Bussey.)
52. Dror Wahrman, The Making of the Modern Self: Identity and Culture in Eighteenth Century England, New Haven: Yale, 2004, pages 182–184.
53. Ibid., pages 275–286.
54. James Buchan, Capital of the Mind, London: John Murray, 2003, page 5.
55. Ibid., pages 1–2.
56. Ibid., pages 174–179. And also helped developed laws. Cobban, Op. cit., page 99.
57. R. A. Houston, Social Change in the Age of Enlightenment: Edinburgh 1660–1760, Oxford: Clarendon Press of Oxford University Press, 1994, page 80.
58. Ibid., pages 8–9.
59. Buchan, Op. cit., page 243.
60. He was little read in the nineteenth century: as James Buchan puts it, ‘it was in the dark twentieth…that Hume was crowned the king of British philosophers’. He was dismissed from his first job for correcting his master’s English. Buchan, Op. cit., page 76.
61. Ibid., page 247 and ref.
62. Buckle, Hume’s Enlightenment Tract, Op. cit., pages 149–168.
63. Buchan, Op. cit., page 81.
64. Hawthorn, Op. cit., pages 32–33.
65. Buchan, Op. cit., page 247 and ref.
66. See Hawthorn, Op. cit., page 32, for the echoes of Hume in William James.
67. Buchan, Op. cit., page 81.
68. Buckle, Op. cit., pages 14–15.
69. Buchan, Op. cit., page 221.
70. Though Cobban, Op. cit., page 172, details other French and Swiss authors who anticipated Ferguson.
71. Buchan, Op. cit., page 222.
72. Frania Oz-Salzberger, Translating the Enlightenment: Scottish Civic Discourse in Eighteenth-Century Germany, Oxford: The Clarendon Press of Oxford University Press, 1995, especially chapter 4, ‘Ferguson’s Scottish contexts: life, ideas and interlocutors’.
73. Buchan, Op. cit., page 224.
74. Ibid., page 305.
75. Many eyes focused on the Dutch United Provinces, for here was a small country–which even had to create its own land–yet had established a leading place among nations due to its excellence in the arts and in commerce.
76. ‘Vital statistics’ is a Victorian term. Buchan, Op. cit., page 309.
77. Ibid., page 316.
78. Ian Simpson Ross, The Life of Adam Smith, Oxford: The Clarendon Press of Oxford University Press, 1995, page 17.
79. Ibid., page 133.
80. Ibid., chapter 11, pages 157ff, ‘The making of the theory of moral sentiments’.
81. Ibid., page 121.
82. Paul Langford, A Polite and Commercial People, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989, page 447.
83. Ibid., page 3.
84. Ibid., page 391.
85. Roger Smith, Op. cit., page 317.
86. Langford, Op. cit., page 70.
87. Roger Smith, Op. cit., page 319.
88. Ibid.
89. Hawthorn, Op. cit., page 56.
90. Bernal, Science in History, Op. cit., volume 4, page 1052, says that for Adam Smith laissez faire was the natural order.
91. H. T. Buckle, A History of Civilisation in England, London: Longman’s Green, 1871, three volumes, volume 1, page 194.
92. Roger Smith, Op. cit., page 333.
93. This has remained an influential form of pessimism, very alive in the twentieth century in the ecology movement. It also helped account for Thomas Carlyle’s description of economics as ‘the dismal science’. See Kenneth Smith, The Malthusian Controversy, London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1951.
94. Roger Smith, Op. cit., page 335; see also Hawthorn, Op. cit., page 80.
95. Roger Smith, Op. cit., page 251.
96. The main difference between then and now, in the understanding of what we may call, for shorthand, sociology, was that in the eighteenth century they were less concerned with biology and psychology than we are, and more concerned with morality (virtue) and politics.
97. Cobban, Op. cit., page 147. Boorstin, Op. cit., page 198, considers him a masochist, always seeking a maman.
98. J.-J. Rousseau, The First and Second Discourses (edited by R. D. Masters), New York: St Martin’s Press, 1964, page 92f. Cobban, Op. cit., page 149, for Rousseau’s ‘intellectual epiphany’.
99. Roger Smith, Op. cit., page 278.
100. Boorstin, Op. cit., page 199. In arguing that feelings should guide man on how to live, Rousseau may be seen as one of the originators of the romantic movement. This also led him to his theory of education: he believed in childhood innocence, rather than the then-prevalent view that the child is inherently sinful and needs it knocked out of him.
101. Hawthorn, Op. cit., pages 14–15.
102. Roger Smith, Op. cit., page 293.
103. Bronowski and Mazlish, Op. cit., page 258.
104. Barnes, Op. cit., page 826.
105. See Boorstin, Op. cit., page 161
, for Bacon’s failure to recognise the advances of Napier, Vesalius and Harvey.
106. Cobban, Op. cit., page 51.
107. F. J. Teggar, The Idea of Progress, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1925, pages 110ff.
108. Roger Smith, Op. cit., page 259.
109. Ibid. See Boorstin, Op. cit., pages 193ff, for the arguments over the use of the word and concept ‘civilisation’.
110. Teggar, Op. cit., page 142; Boorstin, Op. cit, page 219.
111. Barnes, Op. cit., page 824; and James Bonar, Philosophy and Political Economy, London: Macmillan, 1893, pages 204–205.
112. ‘Tom Paine was considered for a time as Tom Fool to him’, said H. S. Salt. Deborah Manley, Henry Salt: Artist, Traveller, Diplomat, Egyptologist, London: Libri, 2001. See also: H. S. Salt, Godwin’s Inquiry Concerning Political Justice, printed for G. G. and J. Robinson, Paternoster Row, London, 1796, pages 1–2.
113. As one observer put it, ‘this is the apotheosis of individualism and in a sense of Protestantism’. Barnes, Op. cit., page 836.
114. Barnes, Op. cit., page 839; and Boorstin, Op. cit., page 208.
115. Barnes, Op. cit., page 840 and Louis, duc de Saint-Simon, Mémoires de Saint-Simon, edited by A. de Boislisle (41 volumes), Paris, 1923–1928; Boorstin, Op. cit., pages 207–212; Hawthorn, Op. cit., pages 72–79, who describes Saint-Simon as ‘an opportunist’.
CHAPTER 27: THE IDEA OF THE FACTORY AND ITS CONSEQUENCES
1. Charles Dickens, Hard Times, London: Penguin, 2003, with an introduction by Kate Flint, pages 27–28. Hard Times was originally published in 1854.
2. Ibid., page xi.
3. Bronowski and Mazlish, Op. cit., page 307. Depending on which scholar you listen to, there were many other ‘revolutions’ in the eighteenth century–for example, the demographic, the chemical and the agricultural among them.
4. David Landes, The Wealth and Poverty of Nations, New York: Norton/Abacus, 1998/1999, page 42.
5. Bernal, Science and History, Op. cit., page 520.
6. Ibid.
7. Peter Hall, Cities in Civilisation, Op. cit., page 310.
8. Ibid., page 312.
9. Phyllis Deane, The First Industrial Revolution, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1979, page 90.
10. Hall, Op. cit., page 313.
11. David S. Landes, The Unbound Prometheus: Technological Change and Industrial Development in Western Europe from 1750 to the Present Day, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1969, pages 302–303.
12. Peter Lane, The Industrial Revolution, London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1978, page 231. See Samuel Smiles, The Lives of Boulton and Watt, London: John Murray, 1865, pages 182–198, for Watt’s transfer to Birmingham.
13. Hall, Op. cit., page 315.
14. Lane, Op. cit., pages 68–69.
15. Hall, Op. cit., page 316.
16. Ibid., page 319.
17. Ibid., page 308.
18. Landes, The Wealth and Poverty of Nations, Op. cit., page 41.
19. Ibid.
20. Ibid.
21. Hall, Op. cit., pages 311–312.
22. Deane, Op. cit., page 22.
23. Ibid.
24. Landes, The Wealth and Poverty of Nations, Op. cit., pages 64–65.
25. Ibid., page 5.
26. Ibid., page 7.
27. Eric Hobsbawm, The Age of Revolution, London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1962, page 63.
28. Landes, The Wealth and Poverty of Nations, Op. cit., page 7.
29. Hall, Op. cit., page 308.
30. Landes, The Wealth and Poverty of Nations, Op. cit., page 262.
31. Ibid., page 282.
32. Bernal, Science and History, Op. cit., page 600.
33. Ibid., pages 286–287.
34. Kleist is ignored in many histories. See Michael Brian Schiffer, Draw the Lightning Down: Benjamin Franklin and Electrical Technology in the Age of Enlightenment, Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003, page 46.
35. In turn, in the hands of André-Marie Ampère (1775–1836), Karl Friedrich Gauss (1777–1855) and Georg Ohm (1787–1854), far more was learned about magnetic fields produced by currents and the way these flowed through conductors. Current electricity was now a quantitative science. Landes, Unbound Prometheus, Op. cit., page 285.
36. Bernal, Science and History, Op. cit., page 620.
37. Ibid., page 621.
38. Jean-Pierre Poirier, Lavoisier: Chemist, Biologist, Economist, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1996, pages 72ff, ‘The Oxygen Dispute’. Nick Lane, Oxygen: The Molecule that Made the World, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
39. Poirier, Op. cit., pages 72ff.
40. Ibid., pages 102ff, for the new chemistry; pages 105ff for the formation of acids; page 107 for combustion; pages 61ff for the calcinations of metals; and page 150 for the analysis of water.
41. John Dalton, A New System of Chemical Philosophy, London: R. Bickerstaff, 1808–1827 (reprinted 1953), volume II, section 13, pages 1ff and volume I, pages 231ff. And see the diagrams facing page 218.
42. Barnes, Op. cit., page 681.
43. Bernal, Science and History, Op. cit., page 625.
44. Bronowski and Mazlish, Op. cit., page 323.
45. Ibid., page 324.
46. Robin Reilly, Josiah Wedgwood, 1730–1795, London: Macmillan, 1992, page 183.
47. Bronowski and Mazlish, Op. cit., page 325.
48. Reilly, Op. cit., page 314.
49. Ibid., page 327. Samuel Galton, grandfather of Francis, the founder of eugenics, was yet another who moved on from the Warrington Academy to the Lunar Society: he formed one of the earliest collections of scientific instruments. Thomas Day was most famous for his children’s stories; he wrote ‘pompously and vapidly’, according to one account, but he lent money to the other members to support their activities. Robert E. Schofield, The Lunar Society of Birmingham: A Social History on Provincial Science and Industry in Eighteenth Century England, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1963, page 53. James Keir, a former professional soldier, tried his hand at extracting alkalis from kelp (his method worked but the yield was too small) and then, having fought in France, and being fluent in French, translated Macquer’s Dictionary of Chemistry, a distinguished (and highly practical) work, which helped establish the reputation of the Lunar Society.
50. John Graham Gillam, The Crucible: The Story of Joseph Priestley LLD, FRS, London: Robert Hale, 1959, page 138.
51. Bronowski and Mazlish, Op. cit., page 329.
52. Ibid., page 330.
53. Ibid., page 329.
54. See: Jenny Uglow, The Lunar Men: The Friends Who Made the Future, London: Faber & Faber, 2002, especially pages 210–221, 237, 370 and 501.
55. Schofield, Op. cit., page 440.
56. When the state of Massachusetts made its famous protest in the 1760s, that the British government had no right to tax the colony because there was no representative of Massachusetts in Parliament, part of the British government’s reply was that Manchester had no representation either. Henry Steel Commager, The Empire of Reason: How Europe Imagined and America Realised the Enlightenment, London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1978/2000; but see also Gillam, Op. cit., page 182, for the atmosphere in Birmingham.
57. Landes, Unbound Prometheus, Op. cit., page 23.
58. Ibid., pages 25–26.
59. Ibid., pages 22–23, for a good discussion of the controversy.
60. E. P. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class, London: Gollancz, 1963, page 807f.
61. Ibid., chapter 16, pages 781ff.
62. Bronowski and Mazlish, Op. cit., page 339.
63. Athol Fitzgibbons, Adam Smith’s System of Liberty, Wealth and Virtue: The Moral and Political Foundation of the Wealth of Nations, Oxford: The Clarendon Press of Oxford University Press, 1995, pages 5ff.
64. Landes, Unbound Prometheus, Op. cit., page 246.
65. David Weatherall, David Ricardo, The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1976, page 27,
for his break with religion.
