by Peter Watson
66. Ibid., page 147.
67. J. K. Galbraith, A History of Economics, London: Hamish Hamilton/Penguin Books, 1987/1991, page 84.
68. Ibid., page 118.
69. R. W. Harris, Romanticism and the Social Order, London: Blandford, 1969, page 78.
70. Frank Podmore, Robert Owen, New York: Augustus M. Kelley, 1968, page 188.
71. A. L. Morton, The Life and Ideas of Robert Owen, London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1963, page 92.
72. Ibid., pages 88ff.
73. Bronowski and Mazlish, Op. cit., pages 450ff.
74. Harris, Op. cit., page 80. Podmore, Op. cit., page 88, and page 80 for a photograph of the New Lanark mills.
75. He also provided an institute where evening lectures were given for those who wanted to carry on learning after they left school. Morton. Op. cit., page 106.
76. Bronowski and Mazlish, Op. cit., page 456.
77. Another of his ideas was the so-called ‘Owenite communities’ (in London, Birmingham, Norwich and Sheffield) where he brought craftsmen together to manufacture their own wares without the involvement of capitalist employers. Owen always remained convinced that capitalism was ‘an inherently evil system’ and he wanted others to share his vision. This is the main reason why he was such a passionate advocate of trades unionism. It was Owen who had the idea of labour exchanges, a system whereby craftsmen were able to exchange their own products for ‘labour notes’ that, in turn, could be exchanged for goods (another device to sideline the capitalist system). Most of these other ideas failed too, at least in the form that Owen conceived them. But, as R. W. Harris has pointed out, Owen was a visionary rather than an organiser. Many of his ideas would eventually become important elements in labour politics in the latter half of the nineteenth century and throughout most of the twentieth. Harris, Op. cit., page 84.
78. Landes, Unbound Prometheus, Op. cit., pages 298–299, for the importance of lubrication in the industrial revolution.
79. Hobsbawm, The Age of Revolution, Op. cit., page 69.
80. Ibid., page 72.
81. Ibid., page 73.
82. See also Engels’ conversation on the subject with a Mancunian. Hobsbawm, Op. cit., page 182.
83. David McLellan, Karl Marx: His Life and Thought, London: Macmillan, 1973, page 130.
84. Galbraith, Op. cit., page 127.
85. Ibid., page 128. Hawthorn, Op. cit., page 53, for Marx’s relations with Hegel.
86. Jews in France were hopeful of a better future. Hobsbawm, Op. cit., page 197.
87. Terrell Carver (editor), The Cambridge Companion to Marx, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1991, page 56.
88. Roger Smith, Op. cit., page 435.
89. Ibid., page 436.
90. McLellan, Op. cit., page 299ff.
91. Ibid., page 334.
92. Galbraith, Op. cit., pages 128–129.
93. McLellan, Op. cit., pages 299–300 and 349–350.
94. Ibid., pages 433–442.
95. Roger Smith, Op. cit., pages 433–442.
96. Karl Marx, Capital, volume 2, Chicago: E. Untermann, 1907, page 763. Hawthorn, Op. cit., page 54.
97. McLellan, Op. cit., page 447. The International lasted until 1972.
98. Raymond Williams, Culture and Society, 1780–1950, London: Chatto & Windus, 1958, Penguin, 1963.
99. In fact, Adam Smith was one of the first to use the word in this new way, in The Wealth of Nations.
100. Williams, Op. cit., pages 13–14.
101. Ibid., page 14.
102. Ibid., page 15.
103. Ibid., pages 15–16.
104. Ibid., page 16.
105. Ibid., page 124. See also: Nicholas Murray, A Life of Matthew Arnold, London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1996, pages 243–245.
106. Williams, Op. cit., page 130; and Murray, Op. cit., page 245.
107. Williams, Op. cit., page 136 and Matthew Arnold, Culture and Anarchy, London: John Murray, 1869, page 28.
108. Kenneth Pomeranz, The Great Divergence: China, Europe and the Making of the Modern World Economy, Princeton, New Jersey, and London: Princeton University Press, 2000, passim.
109. Karl Polanyi, The Great Transformation, Boston: Beacon Press, 1944/2001, pages 3ff.
110. Ibid., pages 5 and 7.
111. Ibid., page 15. See also: Niall Ferguson, The Cash Nexus, London: Allen Lane/Penguin, 2001/2002, pages 28–29; and 295–296. See page 355 for a table on the growth of democracy. The irony, and paradox, that this period was also the high point of imperialism is not often explored.
CHAPTER 28: THE INVENTION OF AMERICA
1. Elliott, The Old World and the New, Op. cit., pages 54–55.
2. Ibid., page 56.
3. Ibid., page 57.
4. Samuel Eliot Morison, Henry Steel Commager and William E. Leuchtenberg, The Growth of the American Republic, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1980, volume 2, pages 4–5.
5. Elliott, Op. cit., pages 58–59.
6. Ibid., page 65.
7. See Greene, The Intellectual Construction of America, Op. cit., pages 21–22, for the respect for antiquity in Europe at the time.
8. Elliott, Op. cit., page 81.
9. Ibid., page 82.
10. Greene, Op. cit., pages 39–42.
11. Ibid., page 84; and see Greene, Op. cit., pages 28–29, for ideas about Paradise and utopia in early America.
12. Elliott, Op. cit., page 86.
13. Ibid., page 87. The virility of this new economic arrangement was sufficient even to interest the Muslims. Faced with a Spain buoyed by its successes in the Americas, and with vast reserves of silver now at its command, the Ottomans began to display some curiosity about the New World. Around 1580 a History of the West Indies was written and presented to the Sultan Murad III. Relying mainly on Italian and Spanish sources, the author wrote: ‘Within twenty years, the Spanish people have conquered all the islands and captured forty thousand people, and killed thousands of them. Let us hope to God that some time these valuable lands will be conquered by the family of Islam, and will be inhabited by Muslims and become part of the Ottoman lands.’ Ibid., page 88. (Compare Chapter 29, note 47 below.)
14. Bodmer, Armature of Conquest, Op. cit., page 212.
15. Elliott, Op. cit., page 103.
16. Ibid., pages 95–96.
17. Henry Steel Commager, The Empire of Reason, Op. cit., page 83.
18. Ibid., pages 83–84.
19. Ibid., page 84.
20. Kushnarev (edited and translated by Crownhart-Vaughan), Bering’s Search for the Strait, Op. cit., c. page 169.
21. Bodmer, Op. cit., page 106.
22. Antonello Gerbi, The Dispute of the New World: The History of a Polemic, 1750–1900, revised and enlarged edition, translated by Jeremy Moyle, Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1973, page 61.
23. Greene, Op. cit., page 128.
24. Gerbi, Op. cit., page 7.
25. Greene, Op. cit., page 129.
26. Bodmer, Op. cit., page 111.
27. Gerbi, Op. cit., pages 52ff.
28. Commager, Op. cit., page 16; Gary Wills, Inventing America, Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1978/2002, pages 99–100, for Franklin’s meeting with Voltaire.
29. Commager, Op. cit., page 17; Boorstin, The Seekers, Op. cit., page 204; Hugh Brogan, The Penguin History of the United States, London: Penguin, 1985/1990, page 97.
30. Brogan, Op. cit., page 93.
31. Commager, Op. cit., page 20.
32. Ibid., and Brogan, Op. cit., page 98.
33. Commager, Op. cit., page 21.
34. Wills, Op. cit., page 172.
35. Commager, Op. cit., page 23.
36. Ibid., page 24.
37. Greene, Op. cit., page 168; and John Ferling, A Leap in the Dark, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003, page 256.
38. Commager, Op. cit., page 30.
39. Ibid.
40. Wills, Op. cit., page 45.
41. Commager, Op. cit., page 33.
42. Ibid., page 39.
43. Greene, Op. cit., pages 131–138.
44. Brogan, Op. cit., page 178; Daniel Boorstin, The Americans: The National Experience, London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1966, page 399.
45. Commager, Op. cit., page 41.
46. Ibid., page 94.
47. Merrill D. Peterson, Thomas Jefferson and the New Nation, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1970, pages 159–160.
48. Wills, Op. cit., pages 136–137.
49. Commager, Op. cit., page 98.
50. Ibid., page 106.
51. Ibid., page 108.
52. Wills, Op. cit., page 129; and page 99, for the gadgets at Monticello.
53. Commager, Op. cit., page 114.
54. Peterson, Op. cit., page 160.
55. Commager, Op. cit., page 99.
56. Ibid., page 100.
57. Wills, Op. cit., page 287.
58. Commager, Op. cit., page 146.
59. Ibid.
60. Ibid., pages 149–150.
61. Ibid., page 151.
62. Ferling, Op. cit., page 315.
63. Commager, Op. cit., page 153.
64. Wills, Op. cit., page 6, for Pendleton, page 18, for Adams (whom John F. Kennedy features in his Profiles in Courage).
65. Morison et al., Op. cit., page 67; Brogan, Op. cit., pages 94–95.
66. Commager, Op. cit., page 173, quoting: Samuel Williams, Natural and Civil History of Vermont, 1794, pages 343–344.
67. Ibid., page 176.
68. For the sheer abundance in America, see Greene, Op. cit., page 99, and also for some aspects of marriage.
69. W. H. Auden, City Without Walls, London: Faber, 1969, page 58.
70. Commager, Op. cit., page 181.
71. Ibid., page 183.
72. Brogan, Op. cit., page 216.
73. Commager, Op. cit., page 187–188.
74. Ferling, Op. cit., page 26.
75. Commager, Op. cit., page 192.
76. Ibid., pages 192–193.
77. Ferling, Op. cit., page 150.
78. Commager, Op. cit., page 201.
79. Ibid., page 208.
80. For the effects of this thinking on Europe, see Greene, Op. cit., pages 131ff.
81. Ibid., page 177 for the background.
82. Ferling, Op. cit., page 298.
83. Commager, Op. cit., page 236.
84. Ibid., page 238.
85. Ferling, Op. cit., page 257.
86. Commager, Op. cit., pages 240–241.
87. Wills, Op. cit., page 249; Ferling, Op. cit., page 434.
88. Commager, Op. cit., page 245.
89. Tocqueville noted the difference between ‘dissolute’ French-speakers in New Orleans and the ‘pious’ French-Canadians.
90. André Jardin, Tocqueville, London: Peter Halban, 1988, page 149.
91. Ibid.
92. Ibid., page 117. See also: James T. Schleifer, The Making of Tocqueville’s ‘Democracy in America’, Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press, 1980, especially pages 62ff, 191ff, and 263ff.
93. Jardin, Op. cit., page 126.
94. Ibid., page 158; Brogan, Op. cit., page 319.
95. Jardin, Op. cit., page 114. An alternative view is that de Tocqueville thought equality the most important factor in America, but that the revolution had been of little importance in producing that spirit. He also famously said that the two great powers of the future would be America and Russia. See Wills, Op. cit., page 323.
96. Alexis de Tocqueville, Oeuvres Complètes (edited and selected by J. P. Mayer), Paris: Gallimard, 1951–, volume 1, page 236.
97. Jardin, Op. cit., page 162.
98. Brogan, Op. cit., page 75.
99. Jardin, Op. cit., page 208.
100. Ibid., page 216.
101. Parts of his argument, and some of his observations, were paradoxical or contradictory. He found life more private in America though at the same time he thought people were more envious of one another. The development of industry in America, he felt, would perhaps destroy the community spirit he so admired as it exacerbated the differences between people. See Jardin, Op. cit., page 263.
102. Wills, Op. cit., page 323.
CHAPTER 29: THE ORIENTAL RENAISSANCE
1. Donald F. Lach, Asia in the Making of Europe, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965, volume 1, book 1, page 152.
2. Ibid.
3. Ibid., page 153.
4. Ibid., page 155.
5. J. C. H. Aveling, The Jesuits, London: Blond & Briggs, 1981, page 157.
6. John W. O’Malley et al. (editors), The Jesuits: Culture, Science and the Arts, 1540–1773, Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1999, page 338, though this was also seen as a hindrance.
7. Ibid., page 247.
8. Lach, Op. cit., page 314.
9. Ibid.
10. Ibid., page 316; O’Malley et al. (editors), Op. cit., page 380.
11. The fundamental source is John Correia-Afonso SJ, Jesuit Letters and Indian History, Bombay, 1955.
12. Ibid., page 319. For the use of art works to overcome language barriers, see: Anna Jackson and Amin Jaffer (editors), Encounters: The meeting of Asia and Europe 1500–1800, London: V & A Publications, 2004, especially the chapter by Gauvin Bailey.
13. See O’Malley et al. (editors), Op. cit., pages 408ff for other Hindu customs reported by the Jesuits.
14. Lach, Op. cit., page 359.
15. Ibid., page 415.
16. There are scattered references throughout the letters to epidemics, coins, prices and the availability of certain foodstuffs. In general, politics were ignored, beyond personal descriptions of this or that ruler. Correia-Afonso, Op. cit., passim.
17. Lach, Op. cit., page 436.
18. Ibid., page 439.
19. O’Malley et al. (editors), Op. cit., page 405, discusses the idea that some Jesuits thought they understood Hinduism better than the Hindus themselves.
20. Lach, Op. cit., page 442.
21. Gernet, A History of Chinese Civilisation, page 440.
22. O’Malley et al. (editors), Op. cit., pages 343–349 for Jesuit missions to China.
23. Gernet, Op. cit., page 441.
24. Hucker, China’s Imperial Past, Op. cit., page 376.
25. Gernet, Op. cit., page 507.
26. Ibid., page 508. In a particularly Chinese flourish, books were not allowed to Make use of any of the characters which comprised the emperor’s name, lest they be disrespectful.
27. Gernet, Op. cit., pages 521–522.
28. Commager, Op. cit., page 62.
29. Ibid.
30. Peter Watson, From Manet to Manhattan: The Rise of the Modern Art Market, New York and London: Random House/Vintage, 1992/1993, pages 108–109.
31. Marshall G. S. Hodgson, The Venture of Islam: Conscience and History in a World Civilisation, volume 3, The Gunpowder Empires and Modern Times, Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1958/1977, page 42.
32. Ibid., page 50.
33. Ibid., pages 73ff.
34. Ibid., page 158.
35. Hourani, A History of the Arab Peoples, Op. cit., pages 256ff; and Bernard Lewis, What Went Wrong?, London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2002, page 7.
36. Lewis, Op. cit., page 118.
37. Asli Çirakman, From the ‘Terror of the World’ to the ‘Sick Man of Europe’: European Images of Ottoman Empire and Society from the Sixteenth Century to the Nineteenth Century, New York: Peter Lang, 2002, page 51.
38. Ekmeleddin Ihsanoglu, Science, Technology and Learning in the Ottoman Empire: Western Influence, Local Institutions and the Transfer of Knowledge, Aldershot: Ashgate/Variorum, 2004, page II 10–15.
