American Settler Colonialism: A History

by Walter L. Hixson

  53. Margaret Newell, “Indian Slavery in Colonial New England,” in Gallay, ed., Indian Slavery in Colonial America, 47; Lepore, In the Name of War, 182.

  54. Jean M. O’Brien, Dispossession by Degrees: Indian Land and Identity in Natick, Massachusetts, 1650–1790 (Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 1997), 6.

  55. Taylor, American Colonies, 252.

  56. Donna Merwick, The Shame and the Sorrow: Dutch-Amerindian Encounters in New Netherland (Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2006); Taylor, American Colonies, 255.

  57. Gunlog Fur, Colonialism in the Margins: Cultural Encounters in New Sweden and Lapland (Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2006), 247–277; Lorraine E. Williams, “Indians and Europeans in the Delaware Valley, 1620–1655,” in Carol E. Hoffecker, et al., ed., New Sweden in America (Newark, NJ: University of Delaware Press, 1995), 112–120.

  58. Gallay, ed., Indian Slavery in Colonial America,2–3.

  59. Ethridge and Shuck-Hall, eds., Mapping the Mississippian Shatter Zone,1–2.

  60. Ferguson and Whitehead, War in the Tribal Zone, 159; Ethridge, Mapping the Mississippi Shatter Zone, 20.

  61. Christina Snyder, Slavery in Indian Country: The Changing Face of Captivity in Early America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2010), 13–45; Jennings, “Violence in Shattered World,” 289.

  62. Gallay, “South Carolina’s Entrance into the Indian Slave Trade,” in Gallay, ed., Indian Slavery in Colonial America, 109.

  63. Shannon, Iroquois Diplomacy, 14; Ethridge, “Introduction,” in Ethridge and Shuck-Hall, eds., Mapping the Mississippi Shatter Zone,1–62;WilliamA.Fox,” Events as Seen from the North: The Iroquois and Colonial Slavery,” in Ethridge and Shuck-Hall, eds., Mapping the Mississippi Shatter Zone, 63–80.

  64. Margaret Newell, “Indian Slavery in Colonial New England,” in Gallay, ed., Indian Slavery in Colonial America, 33–66.

  65. C. S. Everett, “Indian Slaves in Colonial Virginia,” in Gallay, ed., Indian Slavery in Colonial America, 67–108.

  66. Gallay, “South Carolina’s Entrance into the Indian Slave Trade”; Jennings, “Violence in Shattered World,” 287.

  67. Ibid., 125.

  68. Ethridge, “Introduction,” 24.

  69. Denise I. Bossy, “Indian Slavery in Southeastern Indian and British Societies, 1670–1730,” in Gallay, ed., Indian Slavery in Colonial America, 207–250.

  70. Jennings, “Violence in Shattered World,” 287.

  71. Gallay, “South Carolina’s Entrance into the Indian Slave Trade.”

  72. Milanich, Florida Indians and Invasion from Europe, 173, 204.

  73. John E. Worth, “Razing Florida: The Indian Slave Trade and the Devastation of Spanish Florida, 1659–1715,” in Ethridge and Shuck-Hall, eds., Mapping Mississippi Shatter Zone, 295; Milanich, Florida Indians and Invasion from Europe, 230.

  74. Scarry, “Stability and Change in the Appalachee Chiefdom,” in Scarry, ed., Political Structure and Change in the PreHistoric Southeastern United States (Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida, 1996), 192–228; John H. Hahn, “The Apalachee of the Historic Era,” in Charles Hudson and Carmen Chaves Tesser, eds., The Forgotten Centuries: Indians and Europeans in the American South, 1521–1704 (Athens, GA: University of Georgia Pres, 1994), 327–354.

  75. Ethridge, “Introduction”; Gallay, “Introduction: Indian Slavery in Historical Context,” in Gallay, ed., Indian Slavery in Colonial America, 1–32; Vernon James Knight, Jr., “The Formation of the Creeks,” in Hudson and Tesser, eds., Forgotten Centuries, 373–392; Ned J. Jenkins, “Tracing the Origins of the Early Creeks, 1050–1700 CE,” in Ethridge and Shuck-Hall, eds., Mapping Mississippi Shatter Zone, 188–249; Tom Hatley, The Dividing Paths: Cherokees and South Carolinians through the Era of Revolution (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 3–41; Patricia Galloway, “Confederacy as a Solution to Chiefdom Dissolution: Historical Evidence in the Choctaw Case,” in Hudson and Tesser, eds., Forgotten Centuries, 393–420; Ethridge, “The Making of a Militaristic Slave Society: The Chickasaws and the Colonial Indian Slave Trade,” 252–276; Greg O’Brien, ed., Pre-Removal Choctaw History: Exploring New Paths (Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 2008); Maureen Myers, “From Refugees to Slave Traders: The Transformation of the Westo Indians,” in Ethridge and Shuck-Hall, eds., Mapping Mississippi Shatter Zone, 81–103; Stephen Warren and Randolph Noe, “ ‘The Greatest Travelers in America’: Shawnee Survival in the Shatter Zone,” in Ethridge and Shuck-Hall, eds., Mapping Mississippi Shatter Zone, 163–187.

  76. Shannon, Iroquois Diplomacy, 68–73.

  77. Bossy, “Indian Slavery in Southeastern Indian and British Societies,” 207–250; William L. Ramsey, The Yamassee War: A Study in Culture, Economy, and Conflict in the Colonial South (Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 2008).

  78. Ramsey, The Yamassee War; Gallay, Indian Slave Trade, 338; Peter H. Wood, Black Majority: Negroes in Colonial South Carolina from 1670 Through the Stono Rebellion (New York: Norton, 1996; 1974).

  79. Brett Rushforth, “The Origins of Indian Slavery in New France,” 353; E. A. S. Demers, “John Askin and Indian Slavery at Michilimackinac,” 391; both in Gallay, ed., Indian Slavery in Colonial America.

  80. Carl J. Ekbert, Stealing Indian Women: Native Slavery in the Illinois Country (Urbana and Chicago, IL: University of Illinois Press, 2007), 25–30.

  81. Ian Brown, “An Archeological Study of Culture Contact and Change in the Natchez Bluffs Region,” in Galloway, ed., LaSalle and His Legacy, 176–193; George E. Milne, “Picking Up the Pieces: Natchez Coalescence in the Shatter Zone,” in Ethridge and Shuck-Hall, eds., Mapping Mississippi Shatter Zone, 388–417; Ethridge, “Introduction,” 16.

  82. Colin G. Calloway, New Worlds for All: Indians, Europeans, and the Remaking of Early America (Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997), 102, 98.

  83. Juliana Barr, “A Spectrum of Indian Bondage in Spanish Texas,” in Gallay, ed., Indian Slavery in Colonial America, 277–318.

  84. Ned Blackhawk, Violence Over the Land: Indians and Empires in the Early American West (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008), 70–78, 148.

  85. Leland Donald, Aboriginal Slavery on the Northwest Coast of North America (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1997), 310–312.

  86. Ethridge, “Introduction,” 421.

  Chapter 3

  1. Robert J. Miller, Jacinta Ruru, Larissa Behrendt, and Tracey Lindberg, Discovering Indigenous Lands: The Doctrine of Discovery in the English Colonies (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010).

  2. Stuart Banner, How the Indians Lost Their Land: Law and Power on the Frontier (Cambridge, MA.: Harvard University Press, 2007), 82; see also the path-breaking work by Dorothy Jones, License for Empire: Colonialism by Treaty in Early America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982).

  3. I base these generalizations about diplomacy and those that follow on a range of readings, but see especially James H. Merrell, Into the American Woods (New York: Norton, 1999); Eric Hinderaker, “Diplomacy Between Britons and Native Americans, c. 1600–1800,” in H. V. Bowen, Elizabeth Mancke, and John G. Reid, eds., Oceanic Empire: Britain’s Atlantic and Indian Ocean Worlds (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2012), 218–248; and Greg O’Brien, “The Conqueror Meets the Unconquered: Negotiating Cultural Boundaries on the Post-Revolutionary Southern Frontier,” in O’Brien, ed., Choctaws in a Revolutionary Age, 148–182; and Juliana Barr, Peace Came in the form of a Woman: Indians and Spaniards in the Texas Borderlands (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2007).

  4. O’Brien, “Conqueror Meets the Unconquered,” 156–157.

  5. See Armstrong Starkey, European and Native American Warfare, 1675–1815 (Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1998); Eliot A. Cohen, Conquered Into Liberty: Two Centuries of Battles along the Great Warpath That Made the American Way of War (New York: Free Press, 2011); John E. Ferling, Struggle for a Continent: The Wars of Early America (Arlington H
eights, IL.: Harlan Davidson, 1993); John Grenier, The First Way of War: American War Making on the Frontier, 1607–1814 (New York: Cambridge, 2005); Patrick M. Malone, The Skulking Way of War: Technology and Tactics Among the New England Indians (Lanham, MD: Madison Books, 1991).

  6. Daniel Richter points out that the Anglo-Iroquois covenant was not monolithic but rather ebbed and flowed over time and in different spaces in conjunction with the actions of “individual cultural brokers” and “intercultural politics.” Richter, “Cultural Brokers and Intercultural Politics: New York-Iroquois Relations, 1644–1701,” Journal of American History 75 (June 1988), 40–67; see also Timothy J. Shannon, Iroquois Diplomacy on the Early American Frontier (New York: Viking, 2008).

  7. Spain declined to ally with France in the French and Indian War mainly out of concern that France would dominate the northwest and thereby access to the Pacific. See Paul W. Mapp, The Elusive West And the Contest for Empire, 1713–1763 (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2011).

  8. Neal Salisbury, “The Indians’ Old World: Native Americans and the Coming of Europeans,” in Peter C. Mancall and James H. Merrell, eds., American Encounters: Natives and Newcomers from European Contact to Indian Removal, 1500–1850 (New York: Routledge, 2000), 21.

  9. Merrell, Into the American Woods, 295, 37–38.

  10. Daniel H. Usner, Jr., “The Frontier Exchange Economy in the Lower Mississippi Valley in the Eighteenth Century,” in Mancall and Merrill, eds., American Encounters, 216–239.

  11. Peter Silver, Our Savage Neighbors: How Indian War Transformed Early America (New York: W.W. Norton, 2008), 35; Eric Hinderaker, Elusive Empires: Constructing Colonialism in the Ohio Valley, 1673–1800 (London: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 102, 128.

  12. Daniel P. Barr, “ ‘The Land is Ours and Not Yours’: The Western Delawares and the Seven Years’ War in the Upper Ohio Valley, 1755–1758,” in Daniel P. Barr, ed., The Boundaries Between Us: Natives and Newcomers along the Frontiers of the Old Northwest Territory, 1750–1850 (Kent, OH.: Kent State University Press, 2006), 29; “Disaster in the Forest,” in Rushforth and Map, eds., Colonial North America and the Atlantic World, 315.

  13. As Peter Silver points out, “Almost no one in eighteenth-century America or England seems to have realized that Indian war was designed by its practitioners to be precisely as terrifying as they found it.” See Silver, Our Savage Neighbors, 57.

  14. Silver, Our Savage Neighbors, 80–83, 284; Richard White, The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650–1815 (London: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 366; Starkey, European and Native American Warfare, 112.

  15. Silver, Our Savage Neighbors, xix–xx.

  16. Robert F. Berkhofer, Jr., The White Man’s Indian: Images of the American Indian from Columbus to the Present (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1978), 84–85; Silver, Our Savage Neighbors, 80–83; Christina Snyder, Slavery in Indian Country: The Changing Face of Captivity in Early America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2010), 4.

  17. Fred Anderson, The Crucible of War: The Seven Years War and the Fate of Empire in British North America, 1754–1766 (New York: Vintage Books, 2000), 185–201; Ian K. Steele, Betrayals: Fort William Henry and the “Massacre” (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990).

  18. Gregory E. Dowd “ ‘Insidious Friends’: Gift Giving and the Cherokee-British Alliance,” in Andrew R. L. Clayton and Fredrika J. Teute, eds., Contact Points: American Frontiers from the Mohawk Valley to the Mississippi, 1750–1830 (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1998), 125.

  19. David L. Preston, The Texture of Contact: European and Indian Settler Communities on the Frontiers of Iroquoia, 1667–1783 (Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 2009), 226; Merrell, Into the Woods, 247.

  20. Grenier, First Way of War, 145; Stephen Brumwell, White Devil: A True Story of War, Savagery, and Vengeance in Colonial America (Cambridge, MA: Da Capo Press, 2004): 17, 166–167.

  21. Brumwell, White Devil, 197, 262.

  22. W. J. Eccles, “French Imperial Policy for the Great Lakes Basin,” 21–41; Keith R. Widder, “The French Connection: The Interior French in the Western Great Lakes Region, 1760–1775,” 125–143; and Susan Sleeper-Smith, “ ‘Ignorant Bigots and Busy Rebels’: The American Revolution in the Western Great Lakes,” 145–165; quotation p. 160, all in David C. Skaggs and Larry L. Nelson, Sixty Years’ War for Great Lakes (East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University Press, 2001).

  23. White, Middle Ground; Dowd “Insidious Friends,” 150.

  24. On this point see Greg O’Brien, “Protecting Trade through War: Choctaw Elites and British Occupation of the Floridas,” 103–122, in Greg O’Brien, ed., Pre-Removal Choctaw History: Exploring New Paths (Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 2008).

  25. John Oliphant, Peace and War on the Anglo-Cherokee Frontier, 1756–1763 (London: Palgrave, 2001), 20, 104.

  26. Tom Hatley, The Dividing Paths: Cherokees and South Carolinians through the Era of Revolution (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 101–102.

  27. Dowd “Insidious Friends,” 114–150; M. Thomas Hatley, “The Three Lives of Keowee: Loss and Recovery in the Eighteenth-Century Cherokee Villages,” in Rushforth and Map, eds., Colonial North America and the Atlantic World, 240–260.

  28. Anderson, Crucible of War, 466; Hatley, Dividing Paths, 139; Oliphant, Peace and War on the Anglo-Cherokee Frontier, 206.

  29. James H. Merrell, The Indians’ New World: Catawbas and Their Neighbors from European Contact through the Era of Removal (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1998), 170, 225.

  30. Dixon, “We Speak as One People,” 56; Gregory Evans Dowd, Pontiac, the Indian Nations, and the British Empire (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002).

  31. Grenier, First Way of War, 144–145; Silver, Our Savage Neighbors, 132; Anderson, Crucible of War, 541–546; E. A. Fenn, “Biological Warfare in Eighteenth-Century North America,” Journal of American History 86 (June 1999), 552–558; Elizabeth Fenn, Pox Americana: The Great Smallpox Epidemic of 1775–82 (New York: Hill and Wang, 2001).

  32. Gregory Evans Dowd, War under Heaven: Pontiac, the Indian Nations, and the British Empire (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002), 233; John C. Weaver, The Great Land Rush and the Making of the Modern World, 1650–1900 (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2003), 154–156.

  33. David Dixon, “ ‘We Speak as One People’: Native Unity and the Pontiac Indian Uprising,” in Barr, ed., Boundaries between Us, 59; see also Nancy Shoemaker, “How Indians Became Red,” American Historical Review 102 (June 1997), 625–644; and Shoemaker, A Strange Likeness: Becoming Red and White in Eighteenth-Century North America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004), 141.

  34. Colin Calloway, The Scratch of a Pen: 1763 and the Transformation of North America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006), 98.

  35. Patrick Griffin, American Leviathan: Empire, Nation, and Revolutionary Frontier (New York: Hill and Wang, 2007), 16.

  36. White, Middle Ground, 317; Calloway, Scratch of a Pen, 100.

  37. Starkey, European and Native American Warfare, 115.

  38. R. Douglas Hurt, The Ohio Frontier: Crucible of the Old Northwest, 1720–1830 (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1996), 56.

  39. Preston, Texture of Contact, 165; Richter, Facing East, 201–208; Silver, Our Savage Neighbors,172.

  40. James Axtell, “The White Indians of Colonial America,” in Mancall and Merrell, eds., American Encounters, 324–350.

  41. White, Middle Ground, 351; Shannon, Iroquois Diplomacy on Early American Frontier, 168.

  42. White, Middle Ground, 362, 364.

  43. Starkey, European and Native American Warfare, 128.

  44. Hinderaker, Elusive Empires, 186–187.

  45. Andrew R. L. Cayton, “The Meanings of the Wars for the Great Lakes,” in Skaggs and Nelson, eds., Sixty Years’ War for the Great Lakes, 388.

  46. A
lan Taylor, The Divided Ground: Indians, Settlers, and the Northern Borderland of the American Revolution (New York: Vintage Books, 2006), 80–88.

  47. Glenn F. Williams, Year of the Hangman: George Washington’s Campaign against the Iroquois (Yardley, PA: Westholme Publishing, 2006), 131.

  48. Eric Hinderaker, The Two Hendricks: Unraveling a Mohawk Mystery (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2010), 10, 16; Preston, Texture of Contact; see also Shannon, Iroquois Diplomacy on Early American Frontier.

  49. Williams, Year of the Hangman, 284–294, x.

  50. Hinderaker, Elusive Empires, 193.

  51. Ibid., 208, 211; John Mack Faragher, Daniel Boone: The Life and Legend of an American Pioneer (New York: Owl Books, 1992), 156.

  52. White, Middle Ground, 368–377; on Clark see also the essays in Kenneth C. Carstens and Nancy S. Carstens, eds., The Life of George Rogers Clark, 1752–1818: Triumphs and Tragedies (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2004); and Lowell H. Harrison, George Rogers Clark and the War in the West (Lexington, KY: University Press of Kentucky, 1976).

  53. Silver, Our Savage Neighbors, 276.

  54. Colin Calloway, The American Revolution in Indian Country: Crisis and Diversity in Native American Communities (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 48.

  55. See next chapter.

  56. Hatley, Dividing Paths, 197, 136, 185.

  57. Ibid., 192–234; Calloway, American Revolution in Indian Country, 290.

  58. Hatley, Dividing Paths, 192–234; Hatley, “Three Lives of Keowee,” 240–260; William G. McGloughlin, “Cherokee Anomie, 1794–1810: New Roles for Red Men, Red Women, and Black Slaves,” in Rushforth and Map, eds., Colonial North America and the Atlantic World, 453–476.

  59. White, Middle Ground, 276.

  60. Hurt, Ohio Frontier, 98–99; Faragher, Daniel Boone, 254.