Hadrian and the Triumph of Rome
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Armenia was soon reduced The timing and order of events in the Armenian and Parthian campaigns are hard to determine from our sketchy sources. Dio seems to conflate the fighting in 114 and 115, and I follow Bennett in placing the Mesopotamian campaign in 115; the earthquake at Antioch in late 115 or early 116; and the capture of Ctesiphon in 116. Certainty cannot be had.
“became Trajan’s friend” Dio 68 21 3.
“Sometimes he even made his scouts” Ibid., 68 23 1–2.
“laureled letter” See fasti Ostienses, Smallwood 23.
Early one morning in January Malalas 11 275 3–8. Malalas can be unreliable. Birley, p. 71, believes that because the ordinarius consul Pedo had given way to a suffect long before December, the earthquake must have taken place in January 115. But there is no need to disturb Malalas’ precision; he very probably called Pedo consul because as ordinarius he gave his name to the year.
“able neither to live any longer” Dio 68 24 6.
the emperor “hurried” back Ibid., 68 26 1.
civil strife had removed Parthia’s capacity Ibid., 68 26 42.
a military trophy … with two captives For example, BMC III 606.
raising the ferry charges Fronto Princ Hist 16.
a third new province, Assyria The location of the Roman provincia Assyria is disputed. It may be that historic Assyria was mislabeled Mesopotamia, the year before the capture of Ctesiphon in the south, and that Mesopotamia was called Assyria later, when the name Mesopotamia had already been used for the northern reaches of the Euphrates and Tigris. Strabo seems to have thought that Assyria was located in the lands we take to be Mesopotamia. Other scholars now argue that the new province lay along the eastern bank of the Tigris.
down the Tigris Arrian Parth frag. 67.
“four of them carried the royal flags” Ibid.
“I would certainly have crossed over” Dio 68 29 1.
“Because of the large number of peoples” Ibid., 68 29 2.
“would eat the flesh” Ibid., 68 32 1–2.
“The one hope” Sherk 129 E.
“Not only because of my long absence” Ibid., F.
“clean them out” Euseb Ch Hist 425.
“in grandiloquent language” Dio 68 303.
emperor crowning Parthemaspates BMC III p. 223 no. 1045.
“So great and so boundless” Malalas 11 274 11–13.
XIV. THE AFFAIR OF THE FOUR EX-CONSULS
Chief literary sources—Dio Cassius and Historia Augusta
“sharing his daily life” Dio 69 11. Although the phrase is undated, it is placed in a passage referring to this time.
related to one of those onetime royal families Sherk 128.
Well known for his promiscuity Aur Vic 14 9, 10.
“Widespread rumor asserted” HA Hadr 45.
“The blood, which descends” Dio 68 33 2.
In modern terms I owe this analysis to Bennett, p. 201.
sure … he had been poisoned. Dio 68 33 2.
Apparently Trajan at dinner Ibid., 69 17 3. One epitome mistakenly attributes the incident to Hadrian.
“My father, Apronianus” Ibid., 69 13.
A gold piece showed Trajan BMC III, p. 124. Galimberti, p. 19, sees this coin as evidence that the story of a deathbed and/or fake adoption is false, and that in fact Trajan adopted Hadrian earlier in the year 117, before he was approaching death. But while the literary sources may have been hostile to Hadrian they would hardly have made up a story that many eyewitnesses would have known to be false. Also, Dio’s citation of his father’s account has the ring of truth. However, the coin is awkward and calls for a convincing explanation, which I seek to provide.
the cognomina “Augustus” and “Caesar” Aur Vic 13 21.
He climbed Mount Casius Dio 69 21; and HA Hadr 14 3. Dio refers to a dream, but HA more convincingly writes of an actual event. This is one incident in different versions, not two.
“To [the memory of] Marcus Ulpius Phaedimus” Smallwood 176.
Hadrian drafted a polite, carefully worded letter HA Hadr 61–2.
Trajan handing a globe to Hadrian BMC III, p. 236 1.
image of the phoenix Ibid., p. 245, 48 and 49.
the “Golden Age” Ibid., p. 278 312.
The dowager empress Ibid., p. 246.
a coin with two obverses Ibid., p. 124.
“advised him by letter” HA Hadr 55.
“he swore that he would do nothing” Dio 69 24.
boarded ship An assumption on my part. A cortege could have made its way to Antioch by land, but it would have been a journey through uncomfortable terrain and taken a week or more.
“Noting from your letter” Oliver, pp. 154–56.
blocked up with a huge mass of stone Amm Marc 22 12 8.
“The nations that Trajan had conquered” HA Hadr 52.
“The Romans have aimed to preserve their empire” App Civ War pref. 7.
“all catalogued by Augustus” Tac Ann 1 11.
he must have known of the policy HA Hadr 51.
“Because it is impossible to keep them under our care” Ibid., 53. This translation paraphrases the compressed Latin.
Rome was to abjure military expansion Some contemporary scholars wonder whether Hadrian really did abandon the principle of imperium sine fine. Hadrian’s actions and those of his successor, together with what we know or can infer about the practicalities of administering a large empire, persuade me that Hadrian did indeed introduce a strategic change. For less firm opinions, see Opper, chapter 2, and the brilliant chapter 8 in CAH.
“From the time of Caesar Augustus” Florus Ep 18.
in his post on or before August 25 POxy 3781.
Hadrian himself probably paid a quick visit I follow Gray, pp. 25–28.
the tributum soli For more information see Brunt, p. 335.
known for his shrewdness and sharpness of wit Marc Aur 8 25.
Hadrian presided over the trial This account derives from fragmentary papyri, the so-called Acts of Paulus and Antoninus; these nationalistic texts are semifictional, but it is possible to interpret the bedrock of actuality on which they rest. The events described seem most likely to have taken place now and in Egypt, although it is possible that they occurred later and elsewhere. Delay in dealing with the aftermath of the Jewish revolt was not in Rome’s interest.
“he had fallen under suspicion” HA Hadr 58.
“And after him shall rule” Or Syb 5 65–69. The quotation comes from the Sibylline Oracles, a collection of Greek hexameters, much amended and added to over the centuries, probably composed between the second century B.C. and the sixth century A.D. The original Sibylline Oracles were in the possession of the Roman Republic and were destroyed by fire in 83 B.C. These surviving texts reflect Jewish and Christian hostility to the Roman empire.
appoint the reliable Gaius Avidius Nigrinus This is plausible speculation; we know that Nigrinus was governor of Dacia from an inscription found in Sarmizegetusa (Smallwood 192), but not exactly when. See Birley, p. 86, for a discussion.
the emperor’s favorite horse, Borysthenes A speculation by Birley, p. 86. There are, of course, other possible donors among Rome’s client kingdoms that lined the Black Sea.
“energetic enough in mobilizing his friends” Fronto Princ Hist 10. Also the following quotation “with amusing games.”
the supposed talents of a later emperor Lucius Verus, co-emperor with Marcus Aurelius. See Galimberti, p. 99.
“a well-phrased statement” Pliny Ep 5 13 6.
“in reality because they had great influence” Dio 69 25.
while he was conducting a sacrifice HA Hadr 71.
the occasion was a hunt Dio 69 25.
Trajan had accessed the public courier or postal service Aur Vic 13 5–6.
a German-born centurion, Marcus Calventius Viator Speidel pp. 47—48. (“German-born” because the Dacian altar was dedicated to Celtic deities; bodyguards usually consisted of Germanic recruits.)
&nb
sp; His name appears on two altars Smallwood 192 and 332.
“This slavish passivity” Tac Ann 16 16.
XV. THE ROAD TO ROME
Chief literary sources—Dio Cassius, Historia Augusta, and Juvenal on Rome
“They are made exclusively for war” Tac Germ 29 2.
“I was once the most famous of men” Smallwood 336 1–5 (my translation).
“No Roman or barbarian” Ibid., 7, 11.
a certain Mastor Dio 69 22 2.
declared on oath Ibid., 69 26.
he would never put a senator to death HA Hadr 74.
it showed Clemency BMC III p. 271 no. 252.
Hadrian wanted to do away with his former guardian HA Hadr 93.
“burned the records of old debts” Suet Aug 32 2.
“who remitted 900 million sesterces” Smallwood 64a.
A carved relief shows the scene Chatsworth House, Derbyshire, inv. no. A 59.
a lictor setting fire to a pile of bonds Smallwood 64b.
maintaining the government courier service HA Hadr 75.
“crown gold” Ibid., 65.
supplementary distribution BMC III p. 402 nos. 1125, 1126, and 1127.
“bread and circuses” Juv 10 78–81.
“the waxed tablets” Smallwood II 6, February 26 p. 20.
permission to hang an ornamental shield The date of this request is unknown. I refer to it here for convenience.
a high-value silver coin, a tetradrachm BMC III p. 395 no. 1094.
“That he was surnamed Thurinus” Suet Aug 71.
“On the day of a meeting of the Senate” Ibid., 53 3.
“he frequently attended the official functions” HA Hadr 97–8.
a dangerous faux pas Dio 69 6 1–2.
He had not forgotten those lines from Virgil See page 93 above.
“In a word, he induced a fierce people” Florus Ep 12.
“in the fashion of the Greeks or Numa” Aur Vic 14 2–3; “fine arts” is my paraphrase of ingenuarum artium.
the emperor’s interest in supporting culture Green, p. 164.
denarius struck at Rome shows a bust of Matidia BMC III p. 281 no. 332.
“most immense delights” HA Hadr 19 5.
The Arvals recorded their generous Smallwood II 74–9 (p. 23).
We have his own words Ibid., 114 4 (p. 56).
“All hopes for the arts” Juv 71–4, 17, 20–21.
“a charming coastal retreat” Juv 34.
“at Tibur perched on its hillside” Ibid., 3 191.
“But here we inhabit a city” Ibid., 192–97.
“Insomnia causes most deaths here” Ibid., 232, 236–38.
“however flown with wine” Ibid., 282–88.
“as a special favor” Ibid., 301.
“the whores pimped out” Ibid., 64–65.
“When every building” Ibid., 302–5.
commissioning masterworks of architecture This section is indebted to Opper, pp. 110–25.
“the most blest of plains” Strabo 543.
the celebrated occasion when his predecessor Tac Ann 4 57 and 58.
His aim … was to “aid all the towns” HA Hadr 96.
Inscriptions have been discovered at various towns CIL X 4574, 6652, and ILS 843.
“a restful vacation” Strabo 547.
demarch HA Hadr 19 1.
According to Petronius … she lived in a cave Petr 48.
XVI. THE TRAVELER
Chief literary sources—Dio Cassius and Historia Augusta
dispensed “with imperial trappings” Dio 69 10 1.
“went to the relief of all the communities” HA Hadr 10 1.
restitutor, or “restorer,” of the province BMC III p. 350f, 521f.
the generals of the Republic HA Hadr 10 2 refers to Hadrian’s debt to Scipio Aemilianus and Metellus. The information must have come from Hadrian’s lost autobiography via Marius Maximus. Hadrian would have first heard about these generals in his youth.
“A glorious moment” App Pun 132.
“There will come a day” Homer Iliad 6 448–449.
“[The soldiers’] food” App Iberica 85.
“Stranger, you will do well to linger here” Sen Ep 21 10.
“A painful inability to urinate” Dio Laer Epicurus 10 22.
“You know very well, sir, [the interest I] have” Oliver, pp. 174ff.; Smallwood 442.
“We have what we were so eager to obtain” Smallwood 442.
“the best of all fellow-sectarians” Ibid.
“inattention of previous supreme commanders” HA Hadr 10 3.
a manual of military regulations Veg 18.
“with a view to beauty, speed, the inspiring of terror” Arr Tact 32 3.
“such camp fare as bacon, cheese, and vinegar” HA Hadr 10 2.
“He generally wore the commonest clothing” Ibid., 10 5.
“He personally viewed and investigated” Dio 69 92.
“demolished dining rooms in the camps” HA Hadr 10 4.
older men “with full beards” Ibid., 10 6.
the death penalty should be used See Digest 49 16 6–7, and 48 3 12.
“put a more humane interpretation” Smallwood 333.
“during this period [his first provincial tour]” HA Hadr 12 6.
“An encamped army” Ael Arist Rom 82.
XVII. EDGE OF EMPIRE
Chief literary sources—Dio Cassius and Historia Augusta. Also Birley and Bowman on Vindolanda.
a still-persisting trick of the weather Birley Vind p. 50.
Britunculi See Bowman p. 103, TVII 164.
“I shall expect you, sister” Bowman, p. 135.
“furnish me with very many friends” Ibid., p. 129.
a couple of tablets reveal the efforts See Birley Vind p. 76.
“Many hellos” Bowman, pp. 141–42.
Archaeologists have discovered and explored See Birley Vind p. 76.
Certificates were issued Smallwood 347.
His reply survives Justin Apol App.
“I will not allow them simply to beg” Ibid.
“And this, by Hercules” Ibid.
A document of May 18 TVII 154 (see Bowman, pp. 101–2).
“corrected many abuses” HA Hadr 11 2.
“To the discipline of the emperor” Birley Vind p. 97.
“ripped up their cuirasses” Fronto Ad L Ver 19.
“I implore Your Clemency” TVII 344 (see Bowman, pp. 146–47, but NB variant translation). It is just possible that the letter was for the provincial governor, but the use of the term “Majesty” (not quoted here) suggests that Hadrian was the addressee.
there was an amusing sequel For this anecdote, HA Hadr 11 6–7.
“replaced Septicius Clarus, Praetorian prefect” HA Hadr 11 3. “Without his consent” translates iniussu eius, but some prefer a modern emendation in usu eius, or “in their association with her.” I prefer the former, the latter being somewhat repetitive of apud, “in the presence (or company) of.”
because of his monstrous personality Epit de Caes 14 8. 222 “the first to construct a wall” HA Hadr 11 2.
“necessity of keeping intact” Sherk 141. Hadrian was consul in 118 and 119.
XVIII. LAST GOOD-BYES
Chief literary sources—Historia Augusta and Dio Cassius. Also Xenophon on reaching the sea.
“I couldn’t bear to be Caesar” HA Hadr 16 3–4. This and the following quatrain is a free rendering of ego nolo Caesar esse / ambulare per Britannos / [latitare per Germanos] / Scythicas pati pruinas and ego nolo Florus esse / ambulare per tabernas / latitare per popinas, / culices pati rotundos. A line has dropped out of the first squib, but it can be reconstructed by reference to the emperor’s reply and his itinerary since accession.