The Historical David: The Real Life of an Invented Hero
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14. In many ways Solomon’s lack of action is reminiscent of the presentation of David in Saul’s court: neither does anything that could be construed as ambitious, yet both end up sitting on the throne nonetheless. See Gary N. Knoppers, Two Nations Under God: The Deuteronomistic History of Solomon and the Dual Monarchies (Harvard Semitic Monographs 52; Atlanta: Scholars, 1993), 67–68.
15. See Halpern, David’s Secret Demons, 406.
16. See Margaret M. Gelinas, “United Monarchy–Divided Monarchy: Fact or Fiction?” in The Pitcher Is Broken (ed. S. W. Holloway and L. K. Handy; Journal of the Study of the Old Testament, Supplement Series 190; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic, 1995), 227–37.
17. On Israel’s inherent dualism, see Albrecht Alt, “The Formation of the Israelite State in Palestine,” in Alt, Essays on Old Testament History and Religion (Garden City: Doubleday, 1967), 223–309 (at 274–85); Tryggve N. D. Mettinger, King and Messiah: The Civil and Sacral Legitimation of the Israelite Kings (Lund: Gleerup, 1976), 298–300.
18. For an overview of these long-recognized parallels, see John M. Monson, “The Temple of Solomon: Heart of Jerusalem,” in Zion: City of Our God (ed. R. S. Hess and G. J. Wenham; Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1999), 1–22.
19. See Alt, “Formation,” 271–74; Baruch Halpern, The Constitution of the Monarchy in Israel (Harvard Semitic Monographs 25; Chico, CA: Scholars, 1981), 242–44.
20. On the change from David’s military to Solomon’s, see Chris Hauer Jr., “The Economics of National Security in Solomonic Israel,” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 18 (1980): 63–73.
21. See G. Ernest Wright, “The Provinces of Solomon (1 Kings 4:7–19),” Eretz-Israel 8 (1967): 58*–68*. The discovery of a set of ninth-century BCE administrative inscriptions from the northern capital of Samaria, however, makes clear that the tribal system was not completely obliterated by Solomon’s redistricting. See Lawrence E. Stager, “The Archaeology of the Family in Early Israel,” Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 260 (1985): 1–35 (at 24).
22. The attribution to Solomon of the construction at these sites is hotly contested in archaeological circles. For an overview of this debate, see Israel Finkelstein, “The Archaeology of the United Monarchy: An Alternative View,” Levant 28 (1996): 177–87, and Amihai Mazar, “Iron Age Chronology: A Response to Israel Finkelstein,” Levant 29 (1997): 157–67.
23. See Halpern, David’s Secret Demons, 423–24.
24. See Alt, “Formation,” 308: “The empire created by David and Solomon with such amazing speed [was] a swing of the political pendulum, which went too far, beyond the prevailing inclinations and capabilities of the people of Palestine at the time.”
Conclusion
1. On the distinction of 1 Kings 1–2 from the rest of the David story, see P. Kyle McCarter, II Samuel (Anchor Bible 9; New York: Doubleday, 1984), 12–13; Henry Wansbrough, “The Finale of the Davidic Succession Narrative?,” in Biblical and Near Eastern Essays (ed. C. McCarthy and J. F. Healey; Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, Supplement Series 375; London: T&T Clark, 2004), 37–56.
2. See James W. Flanagan, “Social Transformation and Ritual in 2 Samuel 6,” in The Word of the Lord Shall Go Forth (ed. C. L. Meyers and M. O’Connor; Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1983), 361–72: “Legitimacy [is] the primary, indispensable stabilizer for new authority structures and . . . the need to legitimate is especially pressing when the new structures do not rest easily upon traditional values” (364).
3. b. Šabb. 56a. This is admittedly a minority opinion.
SCRIPTURE INDEX
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OLD TESTAMENT
Genesis: 4:25, 229; 9:6, 259; 23, 174; 29–30, 226; 34, 192; 34:19, 73; 37:14–17, 109; 39, 192
Exodus, 165–166; 20:21, 171; 21:12, 259; 21:14, 240, 244; 29:42–43, 171; 29:45, 171
Leviticus: 15, 222; 21:17–25, 149; 26:4, 145; 26:10–34, 153; 26:19–20, 145
Numbers, 166; 13–14, 120; 20:28, 72; 21, 182; 32, 185
Deuteronomy, 95, 165–166; 11:1, 242; 21:23, 107; 22:22, 79; 24:4, 79; 26:17, 242; 28:12, 145; 29:8, 242; 31:6, 242
Joshua: 6:21, 85; 9, 146, 147; 9:7, 159; 13:13, 189; 14:13, 120; 15:17, 91; 15:63, 158; 18:1, 166
Judges: 1:19, 51; 9:5, 111; 9:45, 89; 9:53–54, 111; 13:5, 52; 15:9, 58; 16:30, 52; 18, 51; 19–20, 107
1 Samuel, 11–12; 1:3, 166; 3:20, 185; 4, 167; 4:12–18, 111; 4–7, 52; 6, 58; 7:13, 55; 7:14, 55; 8:11, 199, 249; 8:15, 199, 250; 8:17, 250; 10:6–7, 67; 10:11–12, 67; 10:17–24, 36–37; 10:23–24, 150; 11, 181; 13:2, 57; 13:3, 57; 13:14, 6, 20; 14:6–15, 57; 14:45, 57; 14:47, 60, 183; 14:47–48, 53; 14:50, 78; 14:52, 52; 15:3, 199, 200; 15:4, 200; 15:6, 200; 15:12, 200; 16, 18, 22–23, 25–26, 29, 35, 41, 43, 46–47, 92–93, 105; 16:1–13, 36; 16:7, 37, 150; 16:12, 150; 16:13, 36; 16:14, 35; 16:18, 23, 24; 16:21, 75; 17, 18, 23–25, 26, 41, 46–47, 92–93; 17:1, 40, 58–59; 17:4, 38; 17:7, 38; 17:12, 23; 17:13–14, 23; 17:15, 24; 17:17–18, 23–24; 17:33, 24; 17:45, 21; 17:55, 24–25; 18, 25; 18:1, 73; 18:2, 25; 18:4, 70; 18:5, 53, 57; 18:6, 62; 18:7, 53, 61; 18:8, 62; 18:13, 57; 18:14, 53; 18:15–16, 61; 18:16, 53, 75; 18:18, 75; 18:20, 75; 18:23, 75; 18:30, 53; 18–20, 47; 19:1, 73; 19:4, 61; 19:8, 53; 19:24, 66; 20:13–16, 71; 20:31, 68; 21, 84; 22:1, 86; 22:2, 86; 22:6, 49; 22:7–8, 77; 22:19, 84; 23:1, 88; 23:5, 87; 23:7, 88; 23:26, 90; 24, 92; 24:7, 93; 25, 7–8, 94; 25:5, 95; 25:10, 95; 25:11, 95; 25:43, 78; 25:44, 65; 26, 92; 26:9–11, 93; 26:10, 105; 27:4, 100; 27:7, 104; 27:8, 101; 27:9, 101; 27:10, 122; 28:1, 105; 28:2, 105; 29:3, 104, 108; 29:5, 108; 30:19, 109; 30:26–31, 121, 122
2 Samuel, 11–12; 1:10, 110; 1:14, 113; 1:16, 113; 1:19, 114; 1:23, 114; 1:25, 114; 1:26, 73; 1:27, 114; 2:1–4, 118; 2:4, 124; 2:5–9, 128–130; 2:12–13, 147; 2:23, 131; 2:24, 131–132; 3, 189, 190; 3:1, 132; 3:2–5, 188; 3:9–12, 133; 3:21, 136; 3:22, 137; 3:23, 137; 3:28, 136; 3:29, 136; 3:37, 137, 209; 3:39, 136; 4:1, 138; 4:8, 138; 4:10–11, 139; 5, 189; 5:3, 141; 5:11, 164; 5:17, 141; 5:24, 142; 6:1–2, 168; 6:18, 170; 6:19, 170; 6:23, 190; 7, 234, 242; 7:11–12, 176; 7:16, 4, 176, 255; 8, 179–185, 201; 8:3–13, 181; 8:14, 183; 8:16–18, 162; 9:1, 151; 9:6, 151; 9:7, 151; 9:10, 152; 10, 181; 11:1, 57; 11:4, 222; 11:5, 223; 11:14, 224; 11:25, 224; 12, 189; 12:7, 224; 12:8, 80; 12:9, 224; 12:11, 202, 205; 12:13–14, 226; 12:22–23, 224; 12:26, 182; 12:31, 182; 13, 193; 13:28, 193; 14:25, 198; 15:1, 198; 15:16, 202; 16:3, 214; 16:4, 215; 16:8, 203–204; 16:9, 204; 16:18, 204; 17:23, 241; 18:5, 209; 18:8, 208; 18:17, 190; 19:1, 208; 19:3, 209; 19:14, 213; 19:15, 213; 19:31, 215; 19:44, 216; 20:1, 216; 21:1, 144, 145, 148; 21:8, 78; 21:14, 148; 21:19, 38; 22, 18; 22:1, 32; 22:15–22, 39; 23:8–12, 39; 23:18, 39; 23:20–21, 39; 24:2, 185; 24:7, 113; 26:11, 113
1 Kings, 15, 253; 1:1, 230; 1:4, 230; 1:5, 231; 1:6, 231; 1:12, 233; 1:17, 235; 1:21, 235; 1:30, 236; 1:34, 236; 1:39–40, 237; 1:47, 238; 2:22, 244; 2:46, 245; 3:1, 65; 5:3, 97; 5:5, 185; 9:26, 183; 12:4, 251; 12:28, 172; 14:8, 255; 16:9, 69; 16:16, 69
2 Kings, 15; 2:4, 255; 2:13–15, 72; 10:30, 144; 18:8, 54; 25:29, 152
1 Chronicles, 15; 11:13, 40; 15:17, 28; 16:7, 18; 16:42, 28–29; 18:2, 185; 18:15–17, 162; 20:5, 38
2 Chronicles, 15; 20:19, 29; 21:4, 194
Psalms, 19–20, 27–35; 3:1, 30; 11, 28; 14, 31; 18, 18, 32; 22:1, 19; 23, 3; 27:4, 151; 31:6, 19; 39, 27; 42, 27; 42:5, 151; 44–49, 27; 48:10, 151; 50, 27; 51:20, 31; 53, 31, 151; 65:5, 151; 66:13, 151; 66–67, 27–28; 69:36, 31; 72, 27, 30–31; 73–83, 27; 74:7–8, 31; 76, 28; 79:6–7, 31; 84–85, 27; 85, 28; 86, 31; 87–88, 27; 90, 27; 102, 27; 116:19, 151; 117:26, 151; 127, 27; 137, 31, 177; 137:1, 31; 137:7, 31; 144:13, 62
Isaiah: 9:6, 4; 11:1, 4
Jeremiah: 23:5, 4; 30:9, 4
Ezekiel: 34:23–24, 4
Micah: 6:7, 62
Zechariah: 12:8, 256–257
NEW TESTAMENT
Matthew: 1:1, 5
Mark: 15:34, 19
Luke: 20:42, 19; 23:46, 19
John: 7:42, 5
Acts: 1:20, 19; 13:22, 6, 20; 13:23, 5
Romans: 1:3, 5
2 Timothy: 2:8, 5
Revelation: 22:16, 5
SUBJECT INDEX
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Abiathar, 84–85, 203, 206, 212, 213, 244
Abigail: idealization of David, 7–8; marriage to David, 78, 96–98, 120, 121, 191; in murder of Nabal, 94–95, 96; offspring, 188
Abimelech, 111
Abishai, 131–132, 214
Abner: battle at Gibeon, 131, 147–148; betrayal and death, 132–138, 154, 209, 210; leadership of Israel, 129–132, 283n8; in Saul’s military, 50, 57, 63
Absalom, rise and fall: Adonijah parallels, 231–232; Amnon in, 191–196; Bathsheba story and, 202, 205; David’s flight during, 202–205; downfall and death, 205–211; exile and return, 196–198; revolt and overthrow, 198–202
Absalom’s death aftermath: apology written during, 253–254; change in David’s power, 211–212, 219–220; Judah in, 212–213, 215–218; pursuit of Sheba, 216–219; settling individual cases, 213–215
Achish, 100, 101, 104–105, 108, 122
Adonijah: Bathsheba’s objection to, 233–236; death, 243–244; proposed co-rule, 231–233, 238–239; supplanted by Solomon, 237–241
Adullam gathering, 86–87
Ahinoam, 78–80, 188, 190–191, 195
Ahitophel, 203, 206, 212, 228, 241
Amalekite messenger, 110–113, 139–140
Amalekite raid, 108–109, 121
Amarna letters, 103
Amasa, 212–213, 217–218, 244
Ammon, 181–186
Amnon, 188, 191–196, 296n12
animal sacrifice, 169–170, 171
apology: Abner’s death, 136–137; Absalom’s death, 208–211; David story as, 43–46, 74–76, 222, 254–255; demonstrating cultural values, 259–260; genre of, 44–45; Michal marriage story, 65; Saul’s death, 92–94, 114, 121–122; for Solomon, 230, 236, 253; writing of David’s, 253–256
“Apology of Hattušili, The,” 44–45, 75
Arameans, 181–186
Araunah, 172–174
ark of the covenant: altar establishment, 173–175; appropriated by David, 167–169; background, 165–167; ceremonial acts accompanying, 169–171; divinely legitimizing David, 175–176; in flight from Absalom, 202–203; as revenue source, 171–173; in Solomon’s temple, 248
Asahel, 131
authorship by association, 18–19, 34
Baal, 130
Baanah, 138–140
Babylonian conquest, 31, 152, 256
Barzillai, 215
Bathsheba story: and Absalom’s revolt, 202, 205; affair and pregnancy, 221–224; as moral lesson, 221; propelling Solomon’s kingship, 233–236, 240–241; Solomon’s paternity questioned, 225–230; Uriah’s death, 224–225
Benaiah, 231, 232, 236, 240, 244
Bible: authorship by association, 18–19, 34; birth stories, 17; character trait illustration, 19–22; David’s impact on, 261–262; and history, 8–11, 263; as ideology, 254–255; narrative of David’s life, 3, 18, 32, 43–44; rule of three, 66–67; Samuel revised by Chronicles, 11–12, 127. See also apology; idealization of David
Calebites, 97–98, 120
census taking, 173
character trait illustration, 18–22
Christianity, 5, 14–15, 172, 257, 262
City of David, 160, 161–162. See also Jerusalem
coup, 68–69, 78–80, 162. See also Absalom, rise and fall; David’s path to kingship; Solomon’s coup
cultic center establishment, 33, 167–172, 175–179, 261
cultic music references, 33, 34
cult of the dead, 153–154
cultural impact, 5, 14–16, 21–22, 262–265
David: anointing by Samuel, 22, 36–37; biblical narrative, 3, 18, 32, 43–44; death, 242–243; impact on Bible, 261–262; Jonathan and, 70–75; line of, 4–5, 33, 176, 245–246, 255, 257; love for, 74–75; proof of existence, 12–14, 45–46; wives and family, 188–191, 245; youth, 17–18. See also Goliath slaying; idealization of David; lyre playing stories; psalmist image
David in the wilderness: Adullam gathering, 86–87; as habiru, 101–104; Judahite response to, 89–92; at Keilah, 87–89; Nabal’s murder, 94–99; Nob story, 84–85; as Philistine ally, 99–101, 104–105, 112–113; reasons for flight, 76–81; role in Saul’s death, 105, 108–114; Saul pursuing David, 89–90; sparing Saul apology, 92–94; witch of En-dor episode, 105. See also Saul rivalry
David’s military service: biblical account, 46–47, 59–61; exaggerated descriptions, 53–57, 59–62; Goliath defeat launching, 52–53; rank and role, 57–59, 63–64
David’s path to kingship: Abner’s betrayal and death, 132–137; anointed king of Israel, 140–143; anointing in Judah, 118, 124–126; apology, 75–76; eliminating Saul’s descendants, 143–149; Hebron rule, 118–120, 123–125; “House of Judah” creation, 125–126; Ishbaal’s death, 138–140; Israelite’s view on, 117–118, 141–142; as Philistine vassal, 126–128; redistribution of spoils, 121–125; return of Saul’s family’s bones, 153–155; sparing Meribbaal, 149–153; taking of Israel, 128–132
David’s reign: achievements and costs, 251, 257–260, 262–265; administrative structure, 162–163; Adonijah’s co-rule attempt, 231–233, 238–239; ancient Israel’s views on, 219–220; apology and glorification, 253–257; census taking, 173; conquest of neighbors, 179–186; establishing divine rule, 79–80, 105, 125, 175; impact on modern Israel, 260–262; Jerusalem center established, 158–162, 167–172, 175–179, 261; lack of a temple, 176–177; maps, 178, 184; palace construction, 164–165; royal Davidic ideology, 175–176, 245–246, 255–257; Solomon building on, 246–251. See also Absalom, rise and fall; Absalom’s death aftermath; ark of the covenant; Bathsheba story; Solomon’s coup
Dead Sea Scrolls, 18, 31, 33
death cults, 153–154
Dinah, 192–193
divine rule: establishing David’s, 79–80, 105, 125, 175–176; Near East beliefs, 143–144, 149; Solomon’s kingship as, 245–246, 248–249
dynastic succession: Abner upholding, 129–130; Chronicles upholding David’s, 33; David’s marriage to Michal, 64–65, 190; and Meribbaal’s impairment, 149–150; royal Davidic ideology, 4–5, 176, 245–246, 255–257; Saul and, 68–72, 143–144. See also Absalom, rise and fall; Solomon’s coup
Edomites, 182–183, 185
elders at the gate, 199
Eleazar, 40–41
Elhanan, 38–41
Eliab, 37
Enki and Ninmah myth, 150
faith, 21–22
family tombs, 153–154
founder myths, 6, 14–15, 21–22
Gath, 100, 185
genealogical succession. See dynastic succession
Geshur, 189, 196–197
Gibeon, 131–132, 145–148, 217, 218
glorification of David. See idealization of David
Goliath slaying: as character trait illustration, 20–22; contradictory to psalmist image, 22–26; as glorification device, 38–42, 272n22; as iconic story, 3, 5; launching Saul rivalry, 52–53; location, 55, 58–59
habiru (bandit), 102–104
Hammurabi code, 199
Hattušili apology, 44–45, 75
“Hebrew,” 104
Hebron, 118–121, 123–125, 200
herem (the ban), 84–85
hero stories, 6, 14–15, 21–22, 39–40
homosexuality, 72–74
house arrest, 151–152
Hushai, 203–207, 241
idealization of David: cultural impact, 5–6, 14–16; in early writings, 7–12; as evidence of existence, 12–14; faithfulness of David, 21–22, 259; timelessness of David, 3–6. See also apology; Goliath slaying; lyre playing stories; psalmist image
incest, 190–191
Israel, ancient: Absalom’s rebellion and, 201–202, 211, 219–220; access to God, 171–172; after Babylonian exile, 256–257; David’s battle against, 128–132; end times beliefs, 256–257; family tombs, 153–154; famine, 144–146, 148; levirate marriage, 96; maps, 48, 58, 178, 184; naming practices, 227–229; national self-conception, 260–261; Philistine rivalry, 50–52, 56, 58–59; royal wives and concubines, 78–79; Saul’s reign, 47–50; Solomon’s reign, 246–251. See also David’s path to kingship; David’s reign; tribal society