The Invitation-Only Zone
Page 22
10. E. Taylor Atkins, Primitive Selves: Koreana in the Japanese Colonial Gaze, 1910–1945 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2010), p. 101.
11. Hyung Il-pai, Heritage Management, p. 150.
12. Hyung Il-pai, “Travel Guides to the Empire: The Production of Tourist Images in Colonial Korea,” in Consuming Korean Tradition in Early and Late Modernity, edited by Laurel Kendall (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2011), pp. 67–87.
13. Bruce Cumings, “The Legacy of Japanese Colonialism in Korea,” in The Japanese Colonial Empire, 1895–1945, edited by Ramon Hawley Myers and Mark R. Peattie (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984), p. 482.
14. B. R. Myers, The Cleanest Race: How North Koreans See Themselves and Why It Matters (New York: Melville House, 2010), p. 27.
15. Hwaji Shin, “Colonial Legacy of Ethno-Racial Inequality in Japan,” Theory and Society 39 (2010): 86–87.
16. Mitsuhiko Kimura, “Standards of Living in Colonial Korea: Did the Masses Become Worse Off or Better Off Under Japanese Rule?” Journal of Economic History 53 (September 1993): 641.
17. Shin, “Colonial Legacy,” p. 331.
18. Voter registration was based on residence. Even native Japanese living in Korea and other colonies could not vote.
19. Brandon Palmer, Fighting for the Enemy: Koreans in Japan’s War, 1937–1945 (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2013), p. 11.
20. Ibid., p. 19.
21. Ibid., p. 37.
22. Myers, The Cleanest Race, p. 32.
23. Palmer, Fighting for the Enemy, p. 80.
24. Mark E. Caprio and Yu Jia, “Legacies of Empire and Occupation: The Making of the Korean Diaspora in Japan,” Asia-Pacific Journal 37, no. 3 (September 14, 2009).
25. Oguma, A Genealogy of Japanese Self-Images, p. 305.
26. Arnaud Nanta, “Physical Anthropology and the Reconstruction of Japanese Identity in Postcolonial Japan,” Social Science Japan Journal 11, no. 1 (2008): 31.
27. Ibid., p. 30.
28. Hyung Il-pai, “The Politics of Korea’s Past: The Legacy of Japanese Colonial Archaeology in the Korean Peninsula,” East Asian History 7 (June 1994): 28.
29. Myers, The Cleanest Race, pp. 33–34.
5. Adapting to North Korea
1. Interview with the author, Kashiwazaki, Japan, June 19, 2010.
2. Hasuike, Rachi to Ketsudan, p. 110.
3. Ibid.
4. Interview with the author, Kashiwazaki, Japan, June 19, 2010.
5. Sonia Ryang, Reading North Korea: An Ethnological Inquiry (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Asia Center, 2012), p. 25.
6. Interview with the author, Kashiwazaki, Japan, June 19, 2010.
7. Lankov, The Real North Korea, p. 60.
8. Suh Dae-sook, Kim Il Sung: The North Korean Leader (New York: Columbia University Press, 1995), p. 38.
9. Ibid., pp. 30–31.
10. Paul French, North Korea: State of Paranoia (London: Zed Books, 2014), p. 79.
11. Haruki Wada, Kin Nichisei to Manshu konichi senso [Kim Il Sung and the anti-Japanese war in Manchuria] (Tokyo: Heibonsha, 1992).
12. Myers, The Cleanest Race, pp. 108–109.
13. Ryang, Reading North Korea, p. 191.
14. Hasuike, Rachi to Ketsudan, p. 40.
6. Abduction as Statecraft
1. Tessa Morris-Suzuki, “Re-Imagining Japan–North Korea Relations, Part I,” The Japan Institute, p. 29.
2. Interview with author, Seoul, South Korea, May 16, 2009.
3. Interview with author, Seoul, South Korea, May 13, 2009.
4. French, North Korea, p. 59.
5. Shin Sang-ok and Choi Eun-hee, Kim Jong Il wangguk [The kingdom of Kim Jong-Il] (Seoul: Tonga Il-bosa, 1988).
6. Andrei Lankov, North of the DMZ: Essays on Daily Life in North Korea (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2007), p. 62.
7. Shin and Choi, Kim Jong Il wangguk.
8. A pseudonym.
9. Interview with the author, Tokyo, Japan, May 22, 2009.
10. Hwang Jang-yop, “The Problem of Human Rights in North Korea,” Daily NK, 2002, http://www.dailynk.com/english/keys/2002/9/04.php.
7. From Emperor Hirohito to Kim Il-sung
1. Interview with author in Tokyo, Japan, May 25, 2009.
2. United States Central Intelligence Agency, The Japanese Communist Party, 1955–1963 (Washington, DC: CIA, 1964), p. 6.
3. Robert A. Scalapino, The Japanese Communist Movement, 1920–1966 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1966), p. 48.
4. Interview with the author, Tokyo, Japan, July 12, 2010.
5. Interview with the author, Tokyo, Japan, May 18, 2014.
8. Developing a Cover Story
1. Hasuike, Rachi to Ketsudan, p. 98.
2. Interview with the author, Kashiwazaki, June 3, 2009.
9. The Repatriation Project: From Japan to North Korea
1. Twenty-one thousand Koreans are memorialized at Tokyo’s Yasukuni shrine. One hundred forty-eight Koreans were found guilty at the Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal. Palmer, Fighting for the Enemy, p. 189.
2. The notion that North Korea was their geographic home was incorrect because 97 percent of Koreans in Japan originally came from the southern part of the peninsula.
3. Dewayne J. Creamer, “The Rise and Fall of Chosen Soren: Its Effect on Japan’s Relations on the Korean Peninsula,” master’s thesis, Naval Postgraduate School, December 2003, p. 24.
4. Tessa Morris-Suzuki, Exodus to North Korea (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2007), p. 199.
5. Interview with the author, Niigata, Japan, June 19, 2010.
6. Interview with the author, Osaka, Japan, June 17, 2010.
7. Interview with the author, Tokyo, Japan, June 1, 2009.
8. Interview with the author, Niigata, Japan, June 20, 2010.
9. Interview with the author, Niigata, Japan, May 15, 2014.
10. Interview with Katsumi Sato, Tokyo, Japan, May 25, 2009.
11. Katsumi Sato, “The Peninsula That Pains Us,” Seiron, Sept. 1995.
10. Neighbors in the Invitation-Only Zone
1. Interview with the author, Obama, Japan, July 13, 2010.
2. Interview with the author, Kashiwazaki, Japan, June 19, 2010.
3. Interview with the author, Kashiwazaki, Japan, May 12, 2008.
4. Hasuike, Rachi to Ketsudan, p. 146.
11. Stolen Childhoods: Megumi and Takeshi
1. Interview with the author, Tokyo, Japan, May 20, 2009.
2. Sakie Yokota, North Korea Kidnapped My Daughter (New York: Vertical Books, 2009), pp. 10–14.
3. Korean Institute for National Unification, White Paper on Human Rights in North Korea, 2007, p. 270.
4. Interview with the author, Obama, Japan, July 13, 2010.
5. Chosun Ilbo, “Young-nam ‘Never Asked’ If Wife Was Kidnapped,” June 7, 2006.
6. Interview with the author in Kanazawa, Japan, May 28, 2009.
12. An American in Pyongyang
1. Interview with the author, Sado Island, Japan, May 15, 2014.
2. Charles Robert Jenkins and Jim Frederick, The Reluctant Communist: My Desertion, Court-Martial, and Forty-Year Imprisonment in North Korea (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2009), p. 72.
3. Interview with the author, Sado Island, Japan, May 11, 2008.
4. Jenkins and Frederick, Reluctant Communist, p. 39.
5. Although there is no such thing as Japanese DNA, I’ve since learned that Jenkins may have been on to something. In his book Dear Leader, North Korean defector Jang Jin-sung’s describes a program instituted after it became clear the abductees would never become spies. The “se
ed-bearing strategy” involved sending attractive North Korean women to seduce foreign diplomats, journalists, and businessmen. The resulting children had a dual purpose. They would give the regime leverage over the fathers, who would be manipulated into aiding North Korea, whether through favorable coverage, business deals, or government aid. Second, these “mixed-race” children would make excellent spies because they looked nothing like the image of a North Korean agent. When I later met Jang, he connected the abduction project to the seed-bearing program. “They were essentially the same project, just using different methods. They went from kidnapping people to kidnapping eggs.”
13. Terror in the Air
1. Kim Hyon-hui, The Tears of My Soul (New York: William Morrow, 1993), p. 114.
2. Interview with the author, Tokyo, Japan, June 22, 2010.
3. Hitoshi Tanaka, Gaikō no Chikara [The power of diplomacy] (Tokyo: Nihonkeizai Shinbunsha, 2009), p. 215.
14. Kim’s Golden Eggs
1. In addition to interviews, this chapter draws from several books and articles. Koji Takazawa, Shukumei: Yodogō Bōmeishatachi no Himitsu Kōsaku [Destiny: The secret operations of the Yodo refugees] (Tokyo: Shinchōsha, 1998); Patricia Steinhoff, “Kidnapped Japanese in North Korea: The New Left Connection,” Journal of Japanese Studies 30, no. 1 (Winter 2004); Yodo-go Rachi [The hijacking of Japan Airlines Flight 351 and the North Korean kidnapping problem] (Tokyo: NHK Publishing, 2004); Asger Rojle Christensen, Bortført i Københavnion: Japanske skœbner i Nordkorea [Kidnapped in Copenhagen: Japanese destinies in North Korea] (Copenhagen: Gyldendal, 2011); William R. Farrell, Blood and Rage: The Story of the Japanese Red Army (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 1990); Eileen MacDonald, Shoot the Women First (New York: Random House, 1992); Yao Megumi, Shimasu [I apologize] (Tokyo: Bungei-shunju, 2002).
2. Asger Rojle Christensen, Bortført i Københavnion, p. 9.
3. Interview with the author, Tokyo, Japan, May 26, 2011.
15. A Story Too Strange to Believe
1. Interview with the author, Osaka, Japan, May 27, 2009.
2. Interview with the author, Tokyo, Japan, May 25, 2009.
3. Ibid.
4. Interview with the author, June 17, 2010.
5. Interview with the author, Tokyo, Japan, May 25, 2009.
16. The Great Leader Dies, a Nation Starves
1. Hasuike, Rachi to Ketsudan, p. 43.
2. Interview with the author, Kashiwazaki, Japan, June 19, 2010.
3. Stephan Haggard and Marcus Noland, Famine in North Korea: Markets, Aid, and Reform (New York: Columbia University Press, 2007), p. 25.
4. Robert Winstanley-Chesters, “Landscape as Political Project: The “Greening” of North Korea, Sincerity or Otherwise?” Yonsei Journal of International Studies 5, no. 2 (Fall/Winter 2013), p. 263.
5. Haggard and Noland, Famine in North Korea, p. 40.
6. Ibid., p. 3.
7. Ibid., p. 10.
8. Ibid., p. 50.
9. French, North Korea, p. 41.
10. Interview with the author, Obama, Japan, July 13, 2010.
11. Interview with the author, Kashiwazaki, Japan, May 11, 2008.
12. Hasuike, Rachi to Ketsudan, p. 59.
17. Negotiating with Mr. X
1. Yoichi Funabashi, The Peninsula Question: A Chronicle of the Second Korean Nuclear Crisis (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 2007), p. 31.
2. Asahi Shimbun editorial, October 22, 2000, p. 2, and Yomiuri Shimbun editorial, October 24, 2000, p. 3.
3. Hitoshi Tanaka, Gaikō no Chikara, p. 9.
4. Interview with the author, Tokyo, Japan, June 22, 2010.
5. Interview with the author, Tokyo, Japan, May 20, 2014.
6. Interview with the author, Tokyo, Japan, April 10, 2008.
7. Funabashi, The Peninsula Question, p. 8.
8. Interview with the author, Tokyo, Japan, June 22, 2010.
18. Kim and Koizumi in Pyongyang
1. Most flights into North Korea originate in either China or Russia.
2. Interview with the author, Tokyo, Japan, July 17, 2010, and May 10, 2012.
3. Jin-sung Jang, Dear Leader: Poet, Spy, Escapee—A Look Inside North Korea (New York: Atria, 2014), p. 159.
4. Funabashi, The Peninsula Question, p. 5.
19. Returning Home: From North Korea to Japan
1. Hasuike, Rachi to Ketsudan, p. 213.
2. Interview with the author, Obama, Japan, July 13, 2010.
20. An Extended Visit
1. In comparison, the September 11, 2001, attacks on the United States a year earlier received nine hours of coverage. Hyung Gu Lynn, “Vicarious Traumas: Television and Public Opinion in Japan’s North Korea Policy,” Pacific Affairs 79, no. 3 (Fall 2006): 491.
2. Interview with the author, Kashiwazaki, Japan, 2008.
3. Interview with the author, Tokyo, Japan, May 14, 2014.
4. Interview with the author, Tokyo, Japan, June 12, 2009.
5. Interview with the author, Tokyo, Japan, May 14, 2014.
6. Ibid.
7. It took longer for abductee Hitomi Soga’s husband, Charles Jenkins, and their two daughters to get to Japan because the U.S. military still considered Jenkins a deserter. He eventually reached an agreement with the U.S. military, served a six-day sentence, and was dishonorably discharged. The family reunited in Indonesia in July 2004 and now live on Sado Island.
21. Abduction, Inc.
1. Interview with the author, Tokyo, Japan, July 13, 2010.
2. On December 27, 2002, Asahi Shimbun ran a two-page article, “Reviewing North Korea’s Abduction-Related Coverage,” in which it argued that “since the incident, at that time, was neither official nor confirmed, we felt that reporting based on mere speculations could even result in the endangerment of the abduction victims possibly held in North Korea, and we therefore prioritized confirming the rumor first.” The paper apologized for the “misunderstanding.”
3. According to an October 2012 Cabinet Office survey, the abduction issue remains the top concern regarding North Korea (87 percent). Fears of Korea’s missiles (49 percent) and nuclear weapons (59 percent) are significantly less.
4. The abductee groups remain powerful. Between 2002 and 2014, every new prime minister and U.S. ambassador has met with them immediately after taking office. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton and President Obama met with them as well.
5. Katsuei Hirasawa, Rachi Mondai: Tai Kitachōsen Gaikō no Arikata wo tou [The abduction issue: Questioning diplomacy toward North Korea] (Tokyo: PHP, 2004), p. 29.
6. Interview with the author, Tokyo, Japan, June 3, 2009.
7. Interview with the author, Tokyo, Japan, June 22, 2010.
8. Interview with the author, Niigata, Japan, June 18, 2010.
9. Ulv Are Rynning Hanssen, “Changes in Japanese Attitudes Toward North Korea Since ‘9/17,’” master’s thesis, University of Oslo, 2011.
10. “Media to Give Abductees Privacy: News Organizations Agree to Restrain Coverage During Homecomings,” Japan Times, October 13, 2002.
11. Takeshi Inagaki, Shokun!, December 12, 2002, pp. 74–88.
12. Shukan Bunshun, August 3, 2002.
13. Between 2006 and 2010, the Abduction Headquarters budget rose from $2 million to $16 million. T. J. Pempel, “Japan and the Two Koreas: The Foreign-Policy Power of Domestic Politics,” in Changing Power Relations in Northeast Asia, edited by Marie Soderberg, (New York: Routledge, 2011), p. 55.
14. Japanese government Internet TV, March 28, 2008.
15. Trevor Clarke, “Can NHK Keep the Air Free?,” Japan Times, December 26, 2006.
16. Eric Johnston, “The
North Korea Abduction Issue and Its Effect on Japanese Domestic Politics,” JPRI Working Paper no. 101, June 2004.
17. Interview with the author, Tokyo, Japan, May 14, 2014.
18. Interview with the author, Tokyo, Japan, April 7, 2008.
19. Interview with the author, Tokyo, Japan, June 22, 2010.
20. Interview with the author, Tokyo, Japan, May 13, 2014.
22. Kaoru Hasuike at Home
1. Interview with the author, Kashiwazaki, Japan, May 12, 2008.
Epilogue
1. Interview with the author, Tokyo, Japan, July 17, 2010.
2. Interview with the author, Tokyo, Japan, April 10, 2008.
3. Morris-Suzuki, “Becoming Japanese,” p. 162.
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Armstrong, Charles K. The North Korean Revolution, 1945–1950. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2004.
______. The Koreas. New York: Routledge, 2007.
______. Tyranny of the Weak: North Korea and the World, 1950–1992. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2013.
Atkins, E. Taylor. Primitive Selves: Koreana in the Japanese Colonial Gaze. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2010.
Beasley, W. G. Japanese Imperialism, 1894–1945. New York: Oxford University Press, 1987.
Becker, Jasper. Rogue Regime: Kim Jong Il and the Looming Threat of North Korea. New York: Oxford University Press, 2005.
Befu, Harumi. Hegemony of Homogeneity: An Anthropological Analysis of Nihonjinron. Melbourne: Trans Pacific Press, 2001.
Belke, Thomas Julian. “Juche: The State Religion of North Korea.” Ph.D. dissertation. Rutgers University, 1998.
Benfey, Christopher, The Great Wave: Guilded Age Misfits, Japanese Eccentries, and the Opening of Old Japan. New York: Random House, 2003.
Bremen, Jan van, and Akitoshi Shimizu, eds. Anthropology and Colonialism in Asia and Oceania. Richmond, UK: Curzon Press, 1999.
Buruma, Ian. The Wages of Guilt: Memories of War in Germany and Japan. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1994.
______. Inventing Japan. New York: Modern Library, 2003.
Buzo, Adrian. The Guerilla Dynasty: Politics and Leadership in North Korea. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1999.
______. The Making of Modern Korea. New York: Routledge, 2002.
Caprio, Mark E. Japanese Assimilationist Policies in Colonial Korea, 1910–1945. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2009.