The Greatest Story Ever Told—So Far
Page 30
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ALSO BY LAWRENCE M. KRAUSS
A Universe from Nothing
The Fifth Essence
Fear of Physics
The Physics of Star Trek
Beyond Star Trek
Hiding in the Mirror
Quintessence
Atom
Quantum Man
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INDEX
A note about the index: The pages referenced in this index refer to the page numbers in the print edition. Clicking on a page number will take you to the ebook location that corresponds to the beginning of that page in the print edition. For a comprehensive list of locations of any word or phrase, use your reading system’s search function.
A
action quantum, 79
Alda, Alan, 51
Allegory of the Cave (Plato), 11–14, 15, 247, 303, 304. See also Plato’s cave allegory
alpha particles, 116
alpha rays, 119
Ampere, André-Marie, 30
Anderson, Carl, 94, 117, 132, 146–47
Anderson, Philip, 194, 198–99, 200, 202–3, 204, 206
antimatter
Feynman’s research on, 97, 130
matter’s interaction with, 95
strangeness of, 95–96
antineutrons, 95
antiparticles, 95, 97, 100, 102–4, 107, 111, 114, 115
antiprotons, 95, 251–52, 253, 263
antiquarks, 233, 240, 242–43, 250, 257
Appelquist, Tom, 241
Aristotle, 46, 47
artificial radioactivity, 119, 128
asymptotic freedom, 238–41, 245
ATLAS detector, CERN, 268, 272
atomic bomb, development of, 30–31, 129, 133, 134, 147
B
Baker, J. A., 303
Bardeen, John, 184
Bardeen-Cooper-Schrieffer (BCS) theory of superconductivity, 187, 188
Becker, Herbert, 116–17, 118
BEH mechanism. See Higgs mechanism
beta rays, 119, 121
Bethe, Hans, 134–37
atomic bomb research of, 133
background of, 134
nuclear reaction research of, 135–36
personality of, 134–35
Bethe ansatz, 135
Bethe formula, 135
Bethe’s Bible, 135
Bible, 1–2, 21, 22, 133, 135, 302
BICEP (Background Imaging of Cosmic Extragalactic Polarization) experiment, 292–93
Bjorken, James, 233, 236, 237
black holes, 293
Chandra’s theory on, 153
possibility of universes beyond, 10–11
Block, Marty, 157–58
Boehm, Felix, 163, 164
Boltzmann, Ludwig, 78
Born, Max, 84, 85, 87, 127
Bose, Satyendra Nath, 185
Bose-Einstein condensation, 185–86
Bothe, Walther, 116–17, 118, 119
bottom quarks, 247, 257, 258
Breit, Gregory, 169
Brout, Robert, 206–7, 211
Brown, Hanbury, 72
Bruno, Giordano, 21
C
Cabibbo, Nicola, 203
Callan, Curtis, 236, 237
carbon–nitrogen–oxygen (CNO) cycle, 136
Cassen, Benedict, 169
Catholic Church
early pioneers in science and, 21–22
Galileo’s belief about Earth and rest and, 45, 47
cave allegory. See Plato’s cave allegory
Chadwick, James, 117–19, 121, 123, 128
Chandrasekhar, Subrahmanyan (“Chandra”), 153
Chew, Geoffrey, 192, 235
Chopra, Deepak, 86, 99
Clay Mathematics Institute, 244
Cline, David, 251
CMS detector, CERN, 263–64, 267–68, 272
CNO cycle, 136
coincidence methods, 116
Coleman, Sidney, 220, 238, 239
color photograph, Maxwell’s work on, 33, 35
Columbus, Christopher, 52
Condon, Edward, 169
Cooper, Leon, 184, 185
Cooper pairs, 185–86, 187–88, 197–98, 199
Cornell, Eric, 186
cosmic microwave background (CMB) radiation, 290, 292–93
cosmological constant, 295–96
Coulomb, Charles de, 30
creativity, 51–52
Curie, Marie, 117, 119
D
Darwin, Charles, 5, 20, 21
Davis, Ray, 280–81
Davy, Humphry, 25, 26
Dawkins, Richard, 22
Dent, James, 297
Descartes, René, 22
Dick, Philip K., 12
dimensional analysis, 36
Dirac, Paul Adrien Maurice, 85, 91–95
antiparticle discovery by, 95, 97, 114, 115
combination of quantum mechanics and relativity by, 92, 95, 151
Einstein on, 91
electron equation of, 92–94, 99, 114
Feynman compared with, 97–98
Feynman’s first meeting with, 92
Feynman’s research based on, 99
mathematical prediction of new particle by, 93–94, 143
personality of, 91–92, 98
quantum theory of radiation and, 98, 99
Dirac equation, 92–94
displacement current, 37
double-slit experiment with light, 74–76, 77, 88
Dyson, Freeman, 85, 106, 235
E
Eddington, Sir Arthur Stanley, 135
Eightfold Way (Gell-Mann), 193–94
Einstein, Albert, 4, 42, 49–68
background of, 46
Bose-Einstein condensation research by, 185–86
clocks relative to moving objects (time dilation) research of, 58–61
creativity and intellectual confidence of, 52
Dirac described by, 91
Galileo-Maxwell paradox resolution by, 49–54, 58, 64–65
General Theory of Relativity of, 10, 42, 68, 85, 110, 126, 295
gravity and, 114
inferences about real world using measurements and, 61–65
letter to President Roosevelt from, 129
Minkowski’s four-dimensional “space-time” theory and, 66–68, 71
Planck’s relationship with, 80–81
relativity discovery of, 95
ruler measurement example of relativity and, 65–67
space and time theory of, 55–58, 66, 68
Special Theory of Relativity of, 68, 80
electric charges
Faraday’s research on, 25–30, 37–38, 68, 195
quantum electrodynamics (QED) and symmetry of, 106, 107
electric fields, Farady’s visualization of action of, 27–30, 193–94
electricity, Maxwell’s theory of magnetism and, 36–39, 48, 94, 218, 219
electromagnetic waves
calculation of speed of, 42, 50–51
Faraday cage shield against, 195
Maxwell on light as, 42, 219
Maxwell’s discovery of, 41, 42, 46, 74
as particles, 81, 82
superconductors and different polarizations of, 199–200
electromagnetism
gauge symmetry in quantum theory of, 111
Maxwell’s research on, 39–43, 46, 50–51, 68,
74, 109
electrons
Dirac’s equation describing, 92–94
electric charge configurations of, 93–94
Feynman’s measurement of trajectories of, 100–102
mathematical expression of wave function of, 77
spin angular momentum of, 127, 164
spin configurations of, 93
Young’s double-slit experiment with beams of, 75–77
electroweak symmetry, 254, 277, 282, 283–84, 285, 287, 290, 294, 296–97
electroweak theory, 229, 278
publications questioning, 227
validation of, 228, 259
electroweak unification, 216–17, 218, 222, 231, 250, 259, 278
Englert, François, 206–7, 211, 271
European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN), 225, 236
as dominant particle physics laboratory, 259, 262
Gargamelle detector at, 223–24, 225
Large Electron-Positron (LEP) Collider at, 262–63
Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at, 61, 263–74, 275, 284, 285, 286–87, 299
proton accelerator at, 222–23, 251
Super Proton Synchrotron (SPS) at, 251–52, 260, 262
evolution, 3, 5, 20
exclusion principle (Pauli), 123, 127
F
Faraday, Michael, 24–30, 38
background of, 24–25
impact of discoveries of, 30, 31, 46, 68, 109
magnetic induction discovery of, 26–27, 30, 36
Maxwell’s meetings with, 36
Maxwell’s research and, 37, 38
research on electric charges and magnets by, 25–30, 37–38, 68, 195
visualization of action of fields by, 27–30, 193–94
Faraday cage, 195
Feenberg, Eugene, 169
Fermat, Pierre de, 98–99
Fermi, Enrico, 125–32
artificial radioactivity and, 128
background of, 126–27
experimental approach to physics used by, 129–30, 142
impact of research of, 125–26
neutrino named by, 123, 127, 130
neutron decay theory of, 127–29, 130–32, 136, 142, 143, 145–46, 149
nuclear research in Manhattan Project and, 129
potential dangers in releasing energy of atomic nucleus and, 129
statistical mechanics established by, 127
weak interaction theory of, 161, 162, 164
Yang’s work with, 153
Yukawa’s research and, 143, 144, 145–46
Fermi interaction, 136
Fermilab (Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory, Batavia, Illinois), 31, 251, 261, 262–63
fermions, 155, 185, 186, 233, 282, 283
Fermi Problems, 130
Feynman, Richard, 85, 97–106, 125, 159, 160, 228
antiparticles and, 100, 102
atomic bomb research of, 134
Bethe’s approach and, 134
Bjorken’s research on quarks and, 233
Block’s research on weak interaction and, 157–58
Dirac compared with, 97–98
Dirac’s first meeting with, 92
Dirac’s research used by, 99
electron trajectory measurement in time and, 100–102, 130
quantum electrodynamics (QED) and, 99, 102–6, 142, 175, 221, 235
research approach used by, 175, 245
on understanding quantum mechanics, 71
weak interaction research of, 159, 163–64
Fizeau, Hippolyte, 42
Fourier analysis, 126
Franklin, Benjamin, 170–71
Friedman, Jerry, 160, 232–33
G
Galileo Galilei, 5, 21, 45–48
Catholic Church’s trial of, 45, 47
Einstein on Galileo-Maxwell paradox, 48–54, 58, 64–65
motion and rest state theory of, 45–48, 49, 70, 97, 168, 245
gamma rays, 116
neutron mass measurement using, 119
Rutherford’s discovery of, 119–20
Gargamelle detector, CERN, 223–24, 225
Garwin, Dick, 160
gauge bosons, 214, 217, 233, 254, 277, 278
gauge invariance, 109, 172, 198, 199, 228
gauge symmetry
chessboard analogy to explain conservation of energy in, 108–9
description of, 108
differences in philosophical viewpoints on, 109–10
quantum electrodynamics and, 111–12
understanding nature of reality using, 110
Weyl’s naming of, 110–11
gauge transformation, 109
Geiger, Hans, 116, 118
Gell-Mann, Murray
Glashow’s work with, 178
quarks and, 163, 193–94, 231–32, 233–34, 236, 240
scale equations of, 237
symmetry scheme of, 193, 214
weak interaction research of, 163–64
Yang-Mills theory and, 240–41
General Theory of Relativity (Einstein), 10, 42, 68, 85, 110, 126, 295
Genesis, 19, 43
Georgi, Howard, 276–77, 278, 279
Gilbert, Walter, 204–5
Gladstone, William, 26
Glashow, Sheldon, 177–79
approach to research used by, 178
background of, 177–78, 212
CERN research and, 252
electroweak unification and, 216–17, 218, 222, 278
Grand Unification and, 277, 279
on Higgs’s research, 207, 254, 276
Krauss’s career and, 213, 214
neutral currents and, 222, 225, 234
quarks and, 234, 241
Scottish Universities Summer School courses from, 203–4
weak interaction research of, 178–79, 207, 219, 223, 225, 276–77
Weinberg’s research and, 212–13, 218
Gold, Tommy, 113, 121
Goldstone, Jeffrey, 188, 203, 204, 206, 214
Goldstone bosons, 206, 214–15, 217
Grand Unified Theory (GUT), 277–79, 282–83, 290, 291, 292–93, 294
gravity
dimensional analysis of, 36
Einstein’s research on, 114
Newton’s research on, 5, 27–28, 38, 48
quantum theory of, 110
Greenberg, Oscar, 233, 240
Gross, David, 235–41, 277
asymptotic freedom discovery of, 238–41, 245
background of, 235
Gell-Mann’s influence on, 236
quantum chromodynamics and, 241
research on quarks by, 236–37
scaling research of, 237–39
Yang-Mills theory and, 239, 240–41
group theory, 276
Guralnik, Gerald, 207
Gürsey, Feza, 123
Guth, Alan, 290, 291–92
H
Hagen, C. R., 207
Hall, Lawrence, 213
Han, Moo-Young, 233
Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich, 80
Heisenberg, Werner, 84–86, 127
background of, 84–85
exchange of particles in nucleus and, 140–41
on his discovery of quantum mechanics, 84, 85–86
impact of discoveries of, 95, 151
isotopic spin and, 169
Yukawa’s work with research of, 142–43, 144
Heisenberg uncertainty principle, 104, 105, 141
classical worldview of nature versus, 91
measurement of electron trajectories and, 100
observer effect confused with, 90
properties of quantum systems and, 86–90
Higgs, Peter, 203–7, 231, 271
background of, 203–4
Glashow on research of, 207, 254, 276
Higgs boson publication of, 206, 207
quarks and, 204
spontaneous symmetry and, 205–7, 214
Higgs boson
doubts about existence of, 255, 270
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first publication on, 206
forcing emergence of, 256–57
gauge symmetry and, 217, 254, 255
inflation and, 294–95
mass estimation for, 254–55
naming of, 207
quantum mechanical properties of, 283
reaction to discovery of, 274
Standard Model and, 282–83, 288, 297
supercollider for research on, 259, 262–63, 270, 271, 272–73, 275, 284, 285, 287
supersymmetric scale of, 283–85
weak interactions with, 217–18
Z particle and, 220
Higgs condensate, 217–18
Higgs field, 248, 254, 256, 275–76, 284, 291
Higgs mechanism, 211, 215, 218, 232
high-temperature superconductors, 194–95
Hilbert, David, 170
Hitchens, Christopher, 305
Hooke, Robert, 22, 24
Huygens, Christiaan, 22
I
Iliopoulos, John, 234
intensity interferometer, 72
Introduction to Theoretical Physics (Planck), 142
isotopic spin
gauge symmetry and, 173, 175, 176
Heisenberg’s invention of, 169
nuclear reactions and conservation of, 171, 172, 173
quark decay and, 234
J
Jeans, Sir James, 80
Joliot-Curie, Irène and Frédéric, 116–18, 119
Jordan, Pascual, 85
K
Kamiokande water detector, Japan, 280, 281
Kendall, Henry, 232–33
Keynes, John Maynard, 20–21
Kibble, Tom, 207
Klein, Abraham, 204, 205
L
Landau, Lev, 235–36, 237, 240
Large Electron-Positron (LEP) Collider, CERN, 262–63
Large Hadron Collider (LHC), CERN, 263–74
characteristics of, 264–67
dark matter research at, 286–87
design and construction of, 263–64, 269–70
detectors used at, 267–69
Higgs discovery at, 271–73, 274, 285
particle research using data collection at, 61, 269–71, 275, 299
supersymmetric partners research at, 285
Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory (LIGO), Washington and Louisiana, 293
Lattes, Cesare, 148
Law of Inertia, 48
law of motion (Newton), 48, 72–73, 245
law of radiation (Planck), 78–81, 89, 115
Lederman, Leon, 160, 161
Lee, Ben, 204, 205
Lee, Tsung-Dao
background of, 153–54
parity doubling concept of, 157, 158–59, 160, 161, 168
Yang’s collaborations with, 153–54
Lenard, Philipp, 80
Le Verrier, Urbain, 94
Lewis, C. S., 10–11
light
Fermat’s principle on trajectory of, 98–99
Genesis as source for understanding, 19, 43