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Through Two Doors at Once: The Elegant Experiment That Captures the Enigma of Our Quantum Reality

Page 25

by Ananthaswamy, Anil


  and origin of the Copenhagen interpretation, 54 –58

  and photoelectric effect, 17

  and wave mechanics, 45 –48

  wave-particle duality, 6 –7

  Elitzur, Avshalom, 2 , 133 –35, 138 , 144

  Elitzur-Vaidman bomb puzzle, 2 –3, 135 , 135 –40, 136 , 142 , 145 , 216

  entanglement, quantum

  and Bell’s theorem, 103 –7, 105

  and Bohmian mechanics, 150 , 164 , 177 –78, 178

  and Bouwmeester’s work, 206

  and EPR argument, 96 , 98

  and many worlds theories, 229 , 231 , 233

  Maudlin on, 107 –8

  and molecular interferometry, 197

  and QBism, 250

  and quantum eraser, 116 –17, 121 –23, 125 –28, 131 , 139 , 144

  and single-particle experiments, 91

  and stochastic collapse theories, 257

  and superposition mirror interferometer, 209

  EPR (Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen) paper, 96 –102, 149 –50

  Erhard, Werner, 255

  ESSW theory, 175 , 176 –77, 181

  Everett, Hugh, III, 216 , 218 –28, 233 –40, 242 , 251 , 261 –62

  Faraday, Michael, 24

  Feynman, Richard

  and Bell’s theorem, 106

  and Bohmian mechanics, 160

  and first double-slit experiments, 15 –18, 22

  and many worlds theories, 227 , 232

  on open-mindedness, 255 –56

  and origin of double-slit experiment, 3

  and path integral formulation, 232 , 264

  on significance of double-slit experiment, 3 –9, 108 , 266

  and single-particle experiments, 62 –66, 68

  Fifth Solvay International Conference on Electrons and Photons (1920), 39 , 52 –58, 155

  Flack, Robert, 173 –74

  Fort, Emmanuel, 158 –59

  Freedman, Stuart, 104

  Fresnel, Augustin-Jean, 65 –66

  Fry, Edward, 104 , 106

  Fuchs, Christopher, 243 –46, 248 –49, 251 , 253

  general relativity, 96 –97, 187 –88, 190 , 224

  Ghirardi, Giancarlo, 63 –64, 193

  Gisin, Nicolas, 93

  Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, 41

  Goldstein, Sheldon, 151 –55, 157 , 162 , 164 , 166 , 183 –84

  Grangier, Philippe, 63 , 68 , 74 –75, 84 , 86

  gravity, 23 , 96 –97

  Greene, Brian, 109

  GRW theory, 193 –95, 203 , 205 , 214 , 235

  Hall, Michael, 259

  Hardy, Lucien, 1 –2, 140 , 143 –44

  Heisenberg, Werner

  and atomic theory, 40 –42

  and Bohmian mechanics, 151 –52

  on Bohr-Schrödinger discussions, 49 –52

  and Hermann’s work, 101

  and matrix mechanics, 44 –46

  on objectivity at quantum scales, 23

  and origin of the Copenhagen interpretation, 54 –56

  and QBism, 253

  and quantum eraser, 129

  and spontaneous collapse theories, 192

  Hell, Stefan, 59 –60

  Helmholtz, Hermann von, 28

  Hermann, Grete, 100 –101

  Hertz, Heinrich, 25 –29

  hidden variables

  and Bell’s theorem, 104 , 106 –7

  and Bohmian mechanics, 149 –51, 154 –56, 164 , 167 , 182 , 184

  dissent on Copenhagen interpretation, 217

  and EPR argument, 99 –101

  and future of quantum research, 257 –58, 259

  and many worlds theories, 233 –35, 261 –62

  and QBism, 246 , 250

  and quantum eraser, 114 , 140 , 146

  and single-particle experiments, 61 –62, 70 –71

  Hilbert space, 237 –38, 243

  Hiley, Basil, 162 , 166 –67, 173 –74, 174 –75

  Høffding, Harald, 58

  Holland, Peter, 162

  Holt, Richard, 104

  Hoyle, Fred, 53

  Huygens, Christiaan, 12 –14, 16 , 23 –24

  incompleteness theorem, 112

  interaction-free measurements, 135 , 138 –39, 143 , 145

  James, William, 217 , 244

  Jordan, Pascual, 42

  Jørgensen, Jørgen, 58

  Kaiser, David, 255

  Kuhn, Thomas, 53 –54

  Lamb, Willis, 113

  La Palma-Tenerife experiments, 110 , 121 –29, 122 , 126

  laser interferometers, 74 –75. See also Mach-Zehnder interferometers

  Lenard, Philipp, 29 , 32

  locality/nonlocality, 93 –107

  and Bohmian mechanics, 150 , 161 –64, 176 , 179 –81, 183

  and many worlds theories, 261 –62

  Maudlin on, 107 –8

  and QBism, 250 –51

  and quantum eraser, 112 , 128 , 139 , 144 –45

  and Schrödinger’s wave mechanics, 47

  and single-particle experiments, 62

  and spontaneous collapse, 194

  and superposition mirror interferometer, 212

  and universal wavefunction, 220

  and wave-particle nature of light debate, 24

  Ma, Xiao-Song, 124 , 130

  Mach, Ludwig, 73

  Mach-Zehnder interferometers

  and many worlds theories, 228 , 231 –32, 239

  and molecular interferometry, 205

  and QBism, 248

  and quantum eraser, 123 , 127 , 134 –41

  and single-particle experiments, 73 –75, 78 , 80 , 84 –88

  and superposition mirror interferometer, 208 –9

  many worlds theories, 2 61 –262, 215 –16, 226 –36, 235 , 250 , 260

  Marshall, William, 210

  matrix mechanics, 42 –45, 48

  Maudlin, Tim, 93 –94, 107

  Maxwell, James Clerk, 24 –26, 37 , 60 , 206

  Maxwell’s equations, 32 , 35 –37, 206

  Mayor, Marcel, 199

  measurement problems, 218 –21, 224 , 226 , 230 –31, 261

  Merli, Pier Giorgio, 67

  Mermin, David, 96 , 144 , 249 , 252 –53

  Miller, Warren, 86

  Missiroli, GianFranco, 67

  Mlynek, Jürgen, 197

  molecular interferometry, 196 –205

  Möllenstedt, Gottfried, 64 –67

  Møller, Christian, 129

  Moore, Walter, 50

  Morandi, Giorgio, 3

  Nelson, Edward, 153 –54

  Newton, Isaac, 3 , 8 , 12 –13, 16 , 23 , 39

  Newtonian physics, 10 –11, 21 , 23 –24, 39 . See also classical physics

  Niels Bohr Institute, 40

  Noether, Emmy, 100

  Oppenheimer, Robert, 147 –48

  parallel universe theories, 225 . See also many worlds theories

  path integral formulation, 232

  Pauli, Wolfgang, 41 , 49 , 54 –55, 129 , 151 , 155 –56

  Penrose, Roger, 138 –39, 184 –85, 187 –93, 195 , 203 , 205 –7, 209 –14, 235

  Philippidis, Chris, 167 , 173

  photoelectric effect, 16 –17, 26 –27, 29 –32, 31 , 32 , 91

  pilot-wave theory, 155 –59, 161 , 203

  Pipkin, Francis, 104

  Planck, Max, 29 –32, 37 –39, 66 , 191

  Planck’s constant, 66

  Podolsky, Boris, 96 , 225 , 226

  polarized of light, 102 , 102 –6, 105 , 123 , 125 –27, 126 , 143 , 171 , 174 , 177 –81, 180 , 184

  polarizing beam splitter (PBS), 123 , 126 , 126 , 177 , 178

  Popper, Karl, 53 –54

  positrons, 141 –44

  Pozzi, Giulio, 67

  Pritchard, David, 197

  probability

  and density matrices, 230 –31

  and first double-slit experiments, 21

  and many worlds theories, 230 –32, 239 –43

  and matrix mechanics, 44 –45

  and origin of the Copenhagen interp
retation, 57

  and quantum eraser, 110 –11, 139

  and Schrödinger’s wave mechanics, 47 –48

  and single-particle experiments, 70 –75, 80 –81

  and universal wavefunction, 219 , 221

  psi-epistemic and psi-ontic theories, 245 –46, 249

  quanta, 30 , 32 –34, 37

  Quantum Bayesianism (QBism), 235 , 235 , 242 –43, 245 –46, 248 –54, 262

  quantum eraser experiments, 113 –21, 121 –30, 130 –33, 133 –40, 140 –46, 179

  quantum gravity, 188 , 224

  radiation, 38 –39, 43

  randomness and randomization

  and Bohmian mechanics, 153

  electromagnetic wave view of light, 103

  and first double-slit experiments, 19

  and many worlds theories, 239

  and QBism, 244

  and quantum eraser, 123 , 125 –28, 126 , 139 –40, 145

  and Schrödinger’s wave mechanics, 48

  and single-particle experiments, 68

  and spontaneous collapse, 193 , 195

  and superposition mirror interferometer, 211 –12

  and universal wavefunction, 221

  See also stochasticity

  realist-anti-realist interpretations

  and Bell’s theorem, 106

  and Bohmian mechanics, 149 , 151 , 183

  and EPR argument, 97 , 100 –101

  and ESSW argument, 175

  and Goldstein’s work, 153

  and many worlds theories, 234 , 261 –62

  and molecular interferometry, 203

  and origin of the Copenhagen interpretation, 54 , 57

  and pilot-wave theory, 155 –56

  and QBism, 246 , 248

  and quantum eraser, 110 –11, 140 , 144

  and single-particle experiments, 82 , 85

  relativity, 94 –97, 173 , 187 –88, 190 , 224 , 238 , 261

  Renninger, Mauritius, 134

  Rimini, Alberto, 193

  Rosen, Nathan, 96 , 225

  Rovelli, Carlo, 187

  Rutherford, Ernest, 35

  Salter, Robert P., 112

  Schack, Rüdiger, 245 , 249

  Schrödinger, Erwin, 49 –50

  and Bohmian mechanics, 154 –55, 163 , 165 , 176

  and Born Rule, 263

  cat-in-a-box thought experiment, 83 –84, 164 –66, 189 –90, 215

  development of wave mechanics, 45 –49

  on entanglement, 108

  and many worlds theories, 229 , 231 , 233 –35, 238

  and matrix mechanics, 44 –45

  and molecular interferometry, 196 –97

  and quantum eraser, 111 , 114 , 116 , 133

  and single-particle experiments, 59 –60, 80 , 82 , 91

  and spontaneous collapse, 192 –93

  and universal wavefunction, 219 , 221 –22

  Scully, Marlan, 112 –16, 175 , 179

  Sebens, Charles “Chip,” 240 –41

  Shimizu, Fujio, 197

  Shimony, Abner, 225 –26, 236

  Shipley, Patricia, 101

  Simon, Christoph, 210

  single-particle experiments, 59 –91

  Aspect’s experiment, 60 –64

  beam-splitting experiments, 64 –65, 68 –75, 75 –80

  Schrödinger’s skepticism of, 59 –60

  single molecule interference, 202

  single-photon sensitivity, 2 , 21 –22

  technological advances required for, 64 –68

  thought experiments on, 80 –85

  and Wheeler’s delayed choice experiment, 85 –91

  See also Elitzur-Vaidman bomb puzzle

  single-slit experiments, 33 –35

  Sinha, Urbasi, 263 , 264

  Sokal, Alan, 151 –52

  spacetime curvature, 190 –91

  special relativity, 95 , 261

  spin of particles, 98 –99, 184

  spontaneous collapse theories, 190 –95

  “spooky action at a distance,” 91 , 107 , 128 , 145 , 176

  Squires, Euan, 140

  Stein, Gertrude, 130

  Steinberg, Aephraim, 132 , 167 , 170 –79, 181 –85, 232

  Stern, Alexander, 223

  stochasticity, 39 , 48 , 153 –54, 234 , 239 , 257 , 261

  superposition, quantum

  and Bohmian mechanics, 165 , 169 , 179

  and Born Rule, 263

  entanglement and nonlocality, 107

  and many worlds theories, 229

  and molecular interferometry, 196 –202, 205

  Penrose’s thought experiment, 188 –90

  and quantum eraser, 115 , 120 , 128 , 134 , 136 , 142 , 145

  Schrödinger’s cat thought experiment, 83 –84, 215

  single-particle experiments, 79 –85, 87 , 91

  and spontaneous collapse, 190 –92, 194

  superposition mirror interferometer, 207 –13

  and universal wavefunction, 218 –21, 225 –26

  surreal trajectories, 166 , 175 –77, 179 , 181 –82

  Susskind, Leonard, 255 –56

  Taylor, Geoffrey Ingram, 33 –35, 63

  thermodynamics, 149 , 238

  Thompson, Randall, 104

  Thomson, J. J., 28 –29, 32 –34, 35

  Tonomura, Akira, 67 –68

  twistor theory, 206

  uncertainty principle

  and Bohmian mechanics, 150 , 164 –65, 169

  and Bohr-Schrödinger discussions, 51 –52

  and Copenhagen interpretation, 54 –57

  and future of quantum research, 258 –59

  and many worlds theories, 241

  and QBism, 245 , 247

  and quantum eraser, 113 –14

  and single-particle experiments, 86 , 90

  and spontaneous collapse, 192

  universal wavefunction theory, 218 –27

  Ursin, Rupert, 121 , 129 –30

  Vaidman, Lev, 2 , 133 –35, 138 –40, 144 , 169 , 215 –16, 227

  virtual double-slit experiment, 117 , 117 –18, 122 , 171 , 177

  virtual ensembles of particles, 258 –59, 261

  Von Neumann, John, 48 , 54 , 100 –102, 114 –15, 151

  walking droplet experiments, 158 –62

  Wallace, David, 234 , 236 –37, 239 –42, 251

  wavefunctions

  and Bell’s theorem, 103 –4

  and Bohmian mechanics, 153 –55, 161 –68, 176

  entanglement and nonlocality, 107 –8

  and EPR argument, 99 –100

  and future of quantum research, 257 –59, 262 –64

  and many worlds theories, 215 –16, 228 –31, 233 , 237 –39, 241 –42

  and molecular interferometry, 198 –202

  and nonlocality–relativity conflict, 94 –98

  and Penrose’s thought experiment, 189 –90

  and QBism, 245 –50, 252

  and quantum eraser, 114 –16, 130 –35, 139 –40, 145

  and Schrödinger’s wave mechanics, 46 –48

  and single-particle experiments, 80 –84

  and spontaneous collapse, 192 –95

  and superposition mirror interferometer, 209 , 214 –15

  universal wavefunction theory, 218 –27

  wave-particle duality

  and Bohr-Schrödinger discussions, 50

  and Feynman on double-slit experiment, 6 –7

  and first double-slit experiments, 17 –22

  and photoelectric effect, 31

  and quantum eraser, 112 , 127 , 145

  and Schrödinger’s wave mechanics, 45 –49

  and significance of the double-slit experiment, 108

  and virtual double-slit experiment, 117 –18

  “weak measurement,” 169 –72, 171 , 174 , 179 , 182 , 240

  Weber, Tullio, 193

  Wheeler, John, 85 –91, 113 , 129 –30, 218 , 222 –24, 244

  which-way (welcher-weg) information

  and Bohmian mechanics, 179 , 181

  and many
worlds theories, 233

  and molecular interferometry, 197 –98

  and quantum eraser, 116 , 118 –20, 123 , 125 , 127 –28, 131 –32, 136 –37, 141 –42

  Wigner, Eugene, 115 , 220 , 225

  Wilczek, Frank, 238

  Wiseman, Howard, 170 , 240 , 242 , 257 –59, 261

  World War II, 148

  Yoon-Ho Kim, 116 , 120 –21

  Young, Thomas, 13 –16, 17 , 22 –24, 63 , 75 , 112 , 173

  Young’s experiment with sunlight, 13 –16

  Zanghi, Nino, 162

  Zeilinger, Anton

  and Bohmian mechanics, 150 , 164

  and Bouwmeester’s work, 206

  and molecular interferometry, 196 –98, 203

  and QBism, 253

  and quantum eraser, 110 –12, 116 , 120 –21, 124 , 140

  Zender, Ludwig, 73

  A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z

  ABOUT THE AUTHOR

  Anil Ananthaswamy is an award-winning journalist and former staff writer and deputy news editor for the London-based New Scientist magazine. He has been a guest editor for the science writing program at the University of California, Santa Cruz, and organizes and teaches an annual science journalism workshop at the National Centre for Biological Sciences in Bengaluru, India. He is a freelance feature editor for the Proceedings of the National Academy of Science’s Front Matter . He contributes regularly to New Scientist, and has also written for Nature, National Geographic News, Discover , Nautilus, Matter, The Wall Street Journal, and the UK’s Literary Review . His first book, The Edge of Physics , was voted book of the year in 2010 by Physics World , and his second book, The Man Who Wasn’t There , won a Nautilus Book Award in 2015 and was longlisted for the 2016 PEN/E. O. Wilson Literary Science Writing Award.

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